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ผู้ใช้:M sky/ประเทศออสเตรเลีย

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เครือรัฐออสเตรเลีย

ออสเตรเลีย
ที่ตั้งของออสเตรเลีย
เมืองหลวงแคนเบอร์รา
เมืองใหญ่สุดซิดนีย์
ภาษาราชการไม่มีN2
ภาษาประจำชาติอังกฤษ (de facto)N2
เดมะนิมชาวออสเตรเลีย
ออสซี[1][2] (colloquial)
การปกครองสหพันธรัฐราชาธิปไตยภายใต้รัฐธรรมนูญ
ดูรัฐบาลออสเตรเลีย
สมเด็จพระนางเจ้าเอลิซาเบธที่ 2
Quentin Bryce
เควิน รัดด์
ประเทศเอกราช 
1 มกราคม พ.ศ. 2444
11 ธันวาคม พ.ศ. 2474
9 ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2485 (ตั้งแต่ 3 กันยายน พ.ศ. 2482)
3 มีนาคม พ.ศ. 2529
พื้นที่
• รวม
7,617,930 ตารางกิโลเมตร (2,941,300 ตารางไมล์) ([[รายชื่อประเทศและเขตการปกครองเรียงตามขนาดพื้นที่ทั้งหมด|6]])
ประชากร
• 2009 ประมาณ
22,010,766[3] (53)
• สำมะโนประชากร 2006
19,855,288[4]
2.833 ต่อตารางกิโลเมตร (7.3 ต่อตารางไมล์) (232nd)
จีดีพี (อำนาจซื้อ) 2008 (ประมาณ)
• รวม
799.054 พันล้านดอลลาร์สหรัฐ[5] (17)
36,918 ดอลลาร์สหรัฐ[5] (15th)
จีดีพี (ราคาตลาด) 2008 (ประมาณ)
• รวม
1.013 ล้านล้านดอลลาร์สหรัฐ[5] (15)
46,824[5] (13)
เอชดีไอ (พ.ศ. 2550)เพิ่มขึ้น 0.970[6]
ข้อผิดพลาด: ค่า HDI ไม่ถูกต้อง · 2
สกุลเงินดอลลาร์ออสเตรเลีย (AUD)
เขตเวลาUTC+8 to +10.5 (มีหลายเขตN3)
• ฤดูร้อน (เวลาออมแสง)
UTC+8 to +11.5 (มีหลายเขตN3)
ขับรถด้านleft
รหัสโทรศัพท์61
รหัส ISO 3166AU
โดเมนบนสุด.au

Australia (เสียงอ่านภาษาอังกฤษ: /əˈstreɪljə/ ə-strayl-yə or /ɒˈstreɪljə/ o-strayl-yə,[7] or more formally as /ɔːˈstreɪliə/ aw-stray-lee-ə), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the continental mainland (the world's smallest),[8][9] the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.N4 Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea to the north, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia to the north-east, and New Zealand to the southeast.

For some 40,000 years before European settlement commenced in the late 18th century, the Australian mainland and Tasmania were inhabited by around 250 individual nations[10] of indigenous Australians.[11] After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north, and European discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606,[12] the eastern half of Australia was claimed by the British in 1770 and initially settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales, founded on 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in the following years; the continent was explored, and during the 19th century another five largely self-governing Crown Colonies were established.

On 1 January 1901, the six colonies became a federation, and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since Federation, Australia has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system and remains a Commonwealth realm. The population is 22.0 million, with approximately 60% concentrated in and around the mainland state capitals of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. The nation's capital city is Canberra, located in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).

Australia is a developed country, with a prosperous multicultural society and has excellent results in many international comparisons of national performance such as health care, life expectancy, quality of life, human development, public education, economic freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights.[13] Australian cities routinely rank among the world's highest in terms of cultural offerings and quality of life. It is a member of the United Nations, G-20 major economies, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, OECD, and the WTO.

นิรุกติศาสตร์

[แก้]
Artist's rendition of Port Jackson, the site where Sydney was established, viewed from the South Head. (From A Voyage to Terra Australis.)

ชื่อ ออสเตรเลีย มาจากภาษาละตินคำว่า australis ซึ่งมีความหมายว่า "ตอนใต้" ตำนานแห่ง "แดนนิรนามทางตอนใต้" (เทอร์ราออสเตรลิส) ในสมัยโรมันได้กล่าวถึงภูมิศาสตร์ในยุคกลางของดินแดนนี้แต่ไม่มีหลักฐานหรือเอกสารใดๆ เกี่ยวกับดินแดนแห่งนี้เลย

บันทึกประวัติศาสตร์ของการใช้คำว่า ออสเตรเลีย ในภาษาอังกฤษครั้งแรกในปี ค.ศ. 1625 ใน "จดหมายเหตุออสเตรเลียของ Espíritu Santo ประพันธ์โดย Master Hakluyt", ตีพิมพ์โดบซาร์มัว เพรอ์แชสใน Hakluytus Posthumus.[14] คำคุณศัพท์ภาษาดัชต์ของคำว่า Australische นำมาใช้โดยบริษัทดัชต์อีสต์อินเดียในบาติเวียเพื่อใช้กล่าวถึงดินแดนใหม่ที่เพิ่งค้นพบในปี ค.ศ. 1638 ออสเตรเลีย ได้นำมาใช้ในปี ค.ศ. 1693 เพื่อแปลความหมายของ Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe นวนิยายฝรั่งเศสของGabriel de Foigny โดยใช้นามปากกาครั้งนั้นว่า Jacques Sadeur ในปี ค.ศ. 1676[15] Alexander Dalrymple ได้ใช้คำดังกล่าวในหนังสือ An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean (ค.ศ. 1771) เพื่ออ้างถึงภูมิภาคทางตอนใต้ของแปซิฟิก ในปี ค.ศ. 1793 George Shaw และ Sir James Smith ตีพิมพ์หนังสือเรื่อง Zoology and Botany of New Holland โดยพวกเขาได้เขียนว่า "ในดินแดนอันกว้างใหญ่หรือเทียบเท่าทวีปแห่งออสเตรเลีย ออสเตรเลเซียหรือนิวฮอล์แลนด์"[16] และยังปรากฏในปี ค.ศ. 1799 โดยJames Wilson.[17]

คำว่า ออสเตรเลีย เริ่มเป็นที่นิยมโดยแมธธิว ฟลินเดอร์ส me Australia was popularised by Matthew Flinders, who, as early as 1804, pushed for the name to be formally adopted. When preparing his manuscript and charts for his 1814 A Voyage to Terra Australis, he was persuaded by his patron Sir Joseph Banks to use the term Terra Australis as this was the name most familiar to the public. Flinders did so, but allowed himself the footnote:

"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the earth."[18]

This is the only occurrence of the word Australia in that text; but in Appendix III, Robert Brown's General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis, Brown makes use of the adjectival form Australian throughout,[19] this being the first known use of that form.[20] Despite popular conception, the book was not instrumental in the adoption of the name: the name came gradually to be accepted over the following ten years.[21] Lachlan Macquarie, a Governor of New South Wales, subsequently used the word in his dispatches to England, and on 12 December 1817 recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted.[22] In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.

The word Australia in Australian English is pronounced [əˈstɹæɪljə, -liə].[23] Since early in the 20th century, the country has been sometimes referred to locally and internationally as Oz.N5 Aussie (less frequently spelt Ozzie, better representing the pronunciation) is common colloquially as an adjective, and as a noun referring to an Australian.N6

ประวัติ

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: ประวัติออสเตรเลีย

การตั้งถิ่นฐานของมนุษย์ในออสเตรเลียเริ่มต้นขึ้นเมื่อประมาณ 42,000 - 48,000 ปีก่อน[24] ชาวออสเตรีลยพวกแรกอาจเป็นบรรพบุรุษของพวกอินดิจีนัสออสเตรเลียนในปัจจุบัน สันนิษฐานว่าอาจอพยพมาโดยผ่านแลนด์บริดจ์หรือข้ามทะเลในระยะสั้นจากภูมิภาคเอเชียตะวันออกเฉียงใต้ในปัจจุบัน คนส่วนใหญ่มีอาชีพในการล่าสัตว์และเกษรตรกรรม โดยมีประเพณีและคุณค่าของจิตวิญญาณเป็นพื้นฐานทางความคิด ทำให้พวกเขาเคารพในแผ่นดินและมีความเชื่อในดรีมไทม์ ชาวทอร์เรสเสตรตไอส์แลนเดอร์มีความสัมพันธ์กับชาวเมลานีเซียที่มีพื้นฐานดั้งเดิมในการปลูกพืชเรือนกระจกและเกษตรกรรม-การล่าสัตว์

ภาพวาดเรือเอชเอ็ม บาร์ก เอ็นเดเวอร์ ของนาวาโทเจมส์ คุก ณ อ่าวคุกทาวน์

บันทึกชาวยุโรปครั้งแรกเกี่ยวกับแผ่นดินใหญ่ออสเตรเลียเป็นบันทึกของวิลเลียม แจนส์ซูนต้นหนเรือชาวดัชต์ เขามองเห็นชายฝั่งทะเลเคปยอร์กเพนินซูลาในปี ค.ศ. 1606 ระหว่างคริสต์ศตวรรษที่ 17 ชาวดัชนต์สามารถสร้างแผนที่ชายฝั่งตะวันตกและทางทิศเหนือทั้งหมดที่พวกเขาเรียกว่า "นิวฮอลล์แลนด์" แต่พวกเขาไม่ได้ตั้งถิ่นฐาน ณ สถานที่แผ่งนั้น จนกระทั่งในปี ค.ศ. 1770 นาวาโทเจมส์ คุกได้ล่องเรือและวาดแผนที่ฝั่งตะวันออกของออสเตรเลียซึ่งเขาเรียกว่า "นิวเซาธ์เวลล์" และอ้างสิทธิแผ่นดินบริเวณดังกล่าวเป็นของราชอาณาจักรบริเตนใหญ่[25] การค้นพบของคุกเป็นการเตรียมตัวเพื่อจัดตั้งอาณานิคมแห่งใหม่ ชาวบริเตนได้อพยพเพื่อสร้างอาณานิคมใหม่ ณ บริเวณนิวเซาธ์เวลส์เริ่มต้น ณ พอร์ทแจ็กสันโดยกัปตันอาร์เธอร์ ฟิลลิป เมื่อวันที่ 26 มกราคม ค.ศ. 1788 ออสเตรเลียจึงใช้วันดังกล่าวเป็นวันชาติออสเตรเลีย ต่อมาได้มีการตั้งถิ่นฐานในบริเวณอื่นๆ อาทิ ดินแดน Van Diemen's Land หรือที่รู้จักกันในชื่อแทสเมเนียในปี ค.ศ. 1803 และแยกตัวเป็นอาณานิคมอิสระในปี ค.ศ. 1825 ต่อมาสหราชอาณาจักรอ้างสิทธิในดินแดนตะวันตกออสเตรเลียอย่างเป็นทางการในปี ค.ศ. 1829

อาณานิคมแห่งใหม่นี้ได้ขยายดินแดนจากนิวเซาธ์เวลส์ ได้แก่ เซาธ์ออสเตรเลียในปี ค.ศ. 1836 วิกตอเรียในปี ค.ศ. 1851 และควีนส์แลนด์ในปี ค.ศ. 1859 และได้ขยายต่อไปทางเหนือเมื่อปี ค.ศ. 1911 ภายหลังประชากรทางใต้เริ่มมีความหนาแน่น ออสเตรเลียใต้ก่อตั้งขึ้นในฐานะเป็น "จังหวัดอิสระ" ไม่เคยตกอยู่ในฐานะอาณานิคมแต่อย่างใด วิกตอเรียและออสเตรเลียตะวันตกในขณะก่อตั้งถือเป็นรัฐอิสระเช่นกัน ต่อมาได้ยอมรับการส่งผู้ร้ายข้ามแดนหากพิสูจน์พบว่ากระทำความผิดจริง[26] การส่งตัวผู้ร้ายข้ามแดนในออสเตรเลียสู่อาณานิคมในนิวเซาธ์เวลส์เริ่มขึ้นเมื่อปี ค.ศ. 1848 ภายหลังการรณรงค์ของชนผู้อพยพ[27]

Port Arthur, Tasmania was Australia's largest gaol for transported convicts.

ประชากรชาวอินดิจีรัสออสเตรเลียนมีราวๆ 350,000 คน ณ เวลาที่ชาวยุโรปเริ่มตั้งถิ่นฐาน[28] แต่ตัวเลขประชากรดังกล่าวก็ลดลงอย่างรวดเร็วในช่อง 150 ปีต่อมา ซึ่งสาเหตุส่วนใหญ่มาจากโรคติดเชื้อ[29] "สโตเลนเจเนอเรชันส์" (เด็กชาวอบอร์ริจินัลที่ไม่ได้อยู่กับครอบครัว) which historians such as Henry Reynolds have argued could be considered genocide by some definitions,[30] may have contributed to the decline in the indigenous population.[31] Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some conservative commentators, such as former Prime Minister Howard, as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons. This debate is known within Australia as the History Wars. Following the 1967 referendum, the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land—native title—was not recognised until 1992, when the High Court case Mabo v Queensland (No 2) overturned the notion of Australia as terra nullius (literally "no one's land", effectively "empty land") at the time of European occupation. [ต้องการอ้างอิง]

The Last Post is played at an ANZAC Day ceremony in Port Melbourne, Victoria. Similar ceremonies are held in most suburbs and towns.

A gold rush began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the Eureka Stockade rebellion against mining licence fees in 1854 was an early expression of civil disobedience. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence, and international shipping. On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation, and voting. The Commonwealth of Australia was born and it became a dominion of the British Empire in 1907. The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed from a part of New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of Canberra. (Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed.) The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911.[32] In 1914 Australia joined Britain in fighting World War I, with support from both the outgoing Liberal Party and the incoming Labor Party.[33] The Australians took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front.[34] Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli as the birth of the nation—its first major military action.[35] The Kokoda Track campaign is regarded by many as an analogous nation-defining event during World War II.[36]

Australian soldiers display Japanese flags they captured at Kaiapit, New Guinea in 1943.

Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the UK. Australia adopted it in 1942, but backdated it to the beginning of World War II to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during the war. The shock of the UK's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the United States as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US, under the ANZUS treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the White Australia policy, immigration from Asia and elsewhere was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture, and self-image have been transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the UK were severed with the passing of the Australia Act 1986, ending any British role in the government of the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council.[37] At the 1999 referendum, 54% of Australian voters rejected a proposal to become a republic with a president appointed by two-thirds vote of both houses of the Australian Parliament. Since the election of the Whitlam Government in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the expansion of ties with other Pacific Rim nations while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies and trading partners.

Politics

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Government of Australia, Politics of Australia, และ Monarchy in Australia
Parliament House, Canberra was opened in 1988, replacing the provisional Parliament House building opened in 1927.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a constitutional democracy based on a federal division of powers. The form of government used in Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government. Queen Elizabeth II is the Queen of Australia, a role that is distinct from her position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The Queen is represented by the Governor-General at federal level and by the Governors at state level. Although the Constitution gives extensive executive powers to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the Prime Minister. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's reserve powers outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.[38]

There are three branches of government:

The official residence of the Governor-General of Australia

The bicameral Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the Senate (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a House of Representatives (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats. In the Senate, each state is represented by twelve senators, and each of the territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory) by two. Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years, simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms, since only half of places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. [ต้องการอ้างอิง]

There are two major political groups that form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party, and the Coalition which is a formal grouping of two parties: the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. Independent members and several minor parties—including the Greens and the Australian Democrats—have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Labor Party came to office with Kevin Rudd as Prime Minister following the November 2007 election. Every Australian parliament (federal, state, and territory) then had a Labor government until September 2008 when the Liberal Party formed a minority government in association with the National Party in Western Australia. In the 2004 election, the previous governing coalition led by John Howard won control of the Senate—the first time in more than 20 years that a party (or a coalition) has done so while in government. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over, in each state and territory and at the federal level.[39] Enrolment to vote is compulsory in all jurisdictions except South Australia.[40]

States and territories

[แก้]

แม่แบบ:Australia states imagemap

บทความหลัก: States and territories of Australia

Australia has six states—New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia—and two major mainland territories—the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). In most respects these two territories function as states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation only overrides state legislation in certain areas that are set out in Section 51 of the Australian Constitution; state parliaments retain all residual legislative powers, including powers over education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport, and local government. [ต้องการอ้างอิง]

Each state and major mainland territory has its own legislature or parliament: unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT, and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states. The states are sovereign, though subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower house is known as the Legislative Assembly (House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania) and the upper house is known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier, and in each territory the Chief Minister. The Queen is represented in each state by a Governor; an Administrator in the Northern Territory, and the Australian Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles. [ต้องการอ้างอิง]

The federal government directly administers the following territories:

Norfolk Island is also technically an external territory; however, under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 it has been granted more autonomy and is governed locally by its own legislative assembly. The Queen is represented by an Administrator, currently Owen Walsh.[41]

Foreign relations and military

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Foreign relations of Australia และ Australian Defence Force
The Australian War Memorial

Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact, and by a desire to develop relationships with Asia and the Pacific, particularly through ASEAN and the Pacific Islands Forum. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the East Asia Summit following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia. Australia is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in which the Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings provide the main forum for cooperation. Australia has energetically pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation. It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Australia is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the World Trade Organization, and has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the Australia – United States Free Trade Agreement and Closer Economic Relations with New Zealand. Australia is also negotiating a free trade agreement with Japan, with whom Australia has close economic ties as a trusted partner in the Asia-Pacific region.[42] Australia, along with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, and Singapore are party to the Five Power Defence Arrangements, a regional defence agreement. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism along with its middle power allies Canada and the Nordic countries, and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5 billion for development assistance;[43] as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that recommended in the UN Millennium Development Goals. Australia ranks 7th overall in the Center for Global Development's 2008 Commitment to Development Index.[44]

Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army, and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 73,000 personnel (including 53,000 regulars and 20,000 reservists).[45] Australia's military is 68th largest in the world, but one of the world's smallest in per capita terms. All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands, and Sudan), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The government appoints the Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current Chief of the Defence Force is Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston. In the 2006–07 budget, defence spending was A$22 billion,[46] accounting for less than 1% of global military spending. Australia was placed 27th on the 2008 Global Peace Index, primarily due to its presence in Afghanistan.[47] While the Governor-General is the Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Force, he or she does not play an active part in the ADF's command structure as the elected Australian Government controls the ADF.[48]

Geography

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Geography of Australia, Climate of Australia, และ Geology of Australia
ดูเพิ่ม: List of countries and outlying territories by total area
Climatic zones in Australia, based on the Köppen climate classification

Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 ตารางกิโลเมตร (2,941,300 ตารางไมล์)[49] is on the Indo-Australian Plate. Surrounded by the IndianN4 and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas. The world's smallest continent[9] and sixth largest country by total area,[8] Australia – owing to its size and isolation – is often dubbed the 'island continent'[50] and variably considered the world's largest island.[51] Australia has 34,218 กิโลเมตร (21,262 ไมล์) of coastline (excluding all offshore islands)[52] and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of 8,148,250 ตารางกิโลเมตร (3,146,060 ตารางไมล์). This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.

The Commonwealth of Australia seen from space

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef,[53] lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 กิโลเมตร (1,240 ไมล์). Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith,[54] is located in Western Australia. At 2,228 เมตร (7,310 ฟุต), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 เมตร (9,006 ฟุต).

By far the largest part of Australia is desert or semi-arid lands commonly known as the outback. Australia is the flattest continent, with the oldest and least fertile soils, and is the driest inhabited continent. Only the south-east and south-west corners of the continent have a temperate climate. The population density, 2.8 inhabitants per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world, although a great proportion of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline.

The landscapes of the northern part of the country, with a tropical climate, consist of rainforest, woodland, grassland, mangrove swamps, and desert. The climate is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia.[55]

Environment

[แก้]
The koala and the eucalyptus form an iconic Australian pair
บทความหลัก: Environment of Australia

Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests, and is recognised as a megadiverse country. Because of the continent's great age, its extremely variable weather patterns, and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique and diverse. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic.[56] Australia has the greatest number of reptiles of any country, with 755 species.[57]

Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced plant and animal species. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is a legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the national Biodiversity Action Plan to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 64 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention, and 15 natural World Heritage Sites have been established.[58] Australia was ranked 46th of 149 countries in the world on the 2008 Environmental Performance Index.[59] Australian forests often contain a wide variety of eucalyptus trees and are mostly located in higher rainfall regions.

Most Australian woody plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including many eucalypts and acacias. Australia has a rich variety of endemic legume species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with rhizobia bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi. Among well-known Australian fauna are the monotremes (the platypus and the echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, the koala, and the wombat; the saltwater and freshwater crocodiles; and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world.[60] The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE.[61] Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after first human settlement,[62] including the Australian megafauna; others have become extinct since European settlement, among them the thylacine.[63]

Climate change has become an increasing concern in Australia in recent years,[64] with many Australians considering protection of the environment to be the most important issue facing the country.[65] The first Rudd Ministry has initiated several emission reduction activities;[66] Rudd's first official act, on his first day in office, was to sign the instrument of ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless Australia's carbon dioxide emissions per capita are one of the highest in the world, lower than only a few other industrialised nations including the United States and Canada. Rainfall in Australia has slightly increased over the past century, both nationwide and for two quadrants of the nation,[67] while annual mean temperatures increased significantly over the past decades.[68] Water restrictions are currently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought.[69]

Economy

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Economy of Australia
ดูเพิ่ม: Economic history of Australia และ Median household income in Australia and New Zealand
The Super Pit in Kalgoorlie, Australia's largest open cut gold mine

The Australian dollar is the currency of the Commonwealth of Australia, including Christmas Island, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, as well as the independent Pacific Island states of Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu. After the 2006 merger of the Australian Stock Exchange and the Sydney Futures Exchange, the Australian Securities Exchange is now the 9th largest in the World.[70]

Australia is one of the most laissez-faire free market economies, according to indices of economic freedom. Australia's per capita GDP is slightly higher than that of the United States, UK, Germany, and France. The country was ranked second in the United Nations 2009 Human Development Index, first in Legatum's 2008 Prosperity Index, and sixth in The Economist worldwide Quality-of-Life Index for 2005. All of Australia's major cities fare well in global comparative liveability surveys;[71] Melbourne reached 2nd place on The Economist's 2008 World's Most Livable Cities list, followed by Perth at 4th, Adelaide at 7th, and Sydney at 9th.[72]

An emphasis on exporting commodities rather than manufactures has underpinned a significant increase in Australia's terms of trade during the rise in commodity prices since the start of the century. Australia has a balance of payments that is more than 7% of GDP negative, and has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years.[73] Australia has grown at an average annual rate of 3.6% for over 15 years, a period in which the OECD annual average was 2.5%.[73] Australia did not fall into a technical recession during the late 2000s recession that affected most other Western countries [74]

Destination and value of Australian exports in 2006

The Hawke Government floated the Australian dollar in 1983 and partially deregulated the financial system.[75] The Howard Government followed with a partial deregulation of the labour market and the further privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the telecommunications industry.[76] The indirect tax system was substantially changed in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% Goods and Services Tax (GST), which has slightly reduced the reliance on personal and company income tax that characterises Australia's tax system.

In January 2007, there were 10,033,480 people employed, with an unemployment rate of 4.6%.[77] Over the past decade, inflation has typically been 2–3% and the base interest rate 5–6%. The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, accounts for 69% of GDP.[78] Although agriculture and natural resources account for only 3% and 5% of GDP respectively, they contribute substantially to export performance. Australia's largest export markets are Japan, China, the US, South Korea, and New Zealand.[79]

Demography

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Demographics of Australia และ Immigration to Australia
Historic population[80]
Year Indigenous population
pre 1788 350,000 approximate
Year Non Indigenous population Increase
1788 900  —
1800 5,200 477.8%
1850 405,400 7,696.2%
Year Total population Increase
1900 3,765,300  —
1910 4,525,100 20.2%
1920 5,411,000 19.6%
1930 6,501,000 20.1%
1940 7,078,000 8.9%
1950 8,307,000 17.4%
1960 10,392,000 25.1%
1970 12,663,000 21.9%
1980 14,726,000 16.3%
1990 17,169,000 16.6%
2000 19,169,100 11.6%
2009 21,828,704 13.6%
The Barossa Valley one of Australia's wine-producing regions in South Australia. Fewer than 15% of Australians live in rural areas.

Most of the estimated 22.0 million Australians are descended from colonial-era settlers and post-Federation immigrants from Europe, with almost 90% of the population being of European descent. For generations, the vast majority of both colonial-era settlers and post-Federation immigrants came almost exclusively from the British Isles, and the people of Australia are still mainly of British or Irish ethnic origin. In the 2006 Australian Census, the most commonly nominated ancestry was Australian (37.13%),[81] followed by English (31.65%), Irish (9.08%), Scottish (7.56%), Italian (4.29%), German (4.09%), Chinese (3.37%), and Greek (1.84%).[82]

Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I,[83] spurred by an ambitious immigration program. Following World War II and through to 2000, almost 5.9 million of the total population settled in the country as new immigrants, meaning that nearly two out of every seven Australians were born overseas.[84] Most immigrants are skilled,[85] but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees.[85]

In 2001, the five largest groups of the 23.1% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Italy, Vietnam, and China.[79][86] Following the abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of multiculturalism.[87] In 2005–06, more than 131,000 people emigrated to Australia, mainly from Asia and Oceania.[88] The migration target for 2006–07 was 144,000.[89] The total immigration quota for 2008–09 is around 300,000—its highest level since the Immigration Department was created after World War II.[90][91]

Nearly three quarters of Australians live in metropolitan cities and coastal areas. The beach is an integral part of the Australian identity.[92]

The Indigenous population—mainland Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders—was counted at 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1976 census, which counted an indigenous population of 115,953.[93] A large number of Indigenous people are not identified in the Census due to undercount and cases where their Indigenous status is not recorded on the form; after adjusting for these factors, the ABS estimated the true figure for 2001 to be approximately 460,140 (2.4% of the total population).[94]

Indigenous Australians experience higher than average rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education, and life expectancies for males and females that are 11–17 years lower than those of non-indigenous Australians.[79][95][96] Some remote Indigenous communities have been described as having "failed state"-like conditions.[97][ต้องการอ้างอิง]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2004, the average age of the civilian population was 38.8 years.[98] A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002–03)[99] live outside their home country.

Language

[แก้]

English is the national language.[100] Australian English is a major variety of the language, with its own distinctive accent and vocabulary (some of which has found its way into other varieties of English), but less internal dialectal variation (apart from small regional pronunciation and lexical variations) than either British or American English. Grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Chinese (2.1%), Italian (1.9%), and Greek (1.4%).

A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are bilingual. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 Indigenous Australian languages at the time of first European contact. Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and many are only spoken by older people; only 18 Indigenous languages are still spoken by all age groups.[101] An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.25%) people. Australia has a sign language known as Auslan, which is the main language of about 6,500 deaf people.

Religion

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Religion in Australia

Australia has no state religion. In the 2006 census, 64% of Australians were listed as Christian of any denomination, including 26% as Roman Catholic and 19% as Anglican. "No religion" (which includes humanism, atheism, agnosticism, and rationalism) accounted for 19% and is the fastest growing group (refer difference in census 2006 versus census 2001 results) and a further 12% declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. The second largest religion in Australia is Buddhism (2.1%), followed by Islam (1.7%) and Hinduism (0.8%). Overall less than 6% of Australians identify with non-Christian religions.[102] Weekly attendance at church services in 2004 was about 1.5 million: about 7.5% of the population,[103] and religion does not play a central role in the lives of a large portion of the population.[104]

Education

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Education in Australia

School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia. In most Australian States at 5–6 years of age all children receive 11 years of compulsory education, then can move on to complete two more years (Years 11 and 12), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), currently ranks Australia's education as the eighth best in the world.[105] Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities the majority of universities receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training, higher than colleges, known as TAFE Institutes, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications,[79] and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. The ratio of international to local students in tertiary education in Australia is the highest in the OECD countries.[106] แม่แบบ:Largest cities of Australia

Culture

[แก้]
บทความหลัก: Culture of Australia และ Music of Australia
The Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne was the first building in Australia to be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004

Since 1788, the primary basis of Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture. Distinctive Australian cultural features have also arisen from the country's natural environment and Indigenous cultures. Since the middle of the 20th century, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences are from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries.

Australian visual arts are thought to have begun with the cave and bark paintings of its Indigenous peoples.[107] The traditions of Indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the Dreamtime. From the time of European settlement, a theme in Australian art has been the Australian landscape, seen for example in the works of Albert Namatjira, Arthur Streeton and others associated with the Heidelberg School, and Arthur Boyd. The country's landscape remains sources of inspiration for Australian modernist artists; it has been depicted in acclaimed works by artists such as Sidney Nolan, Grace Cossington Smith, Fred Williams, Sydney Long, and Clifton Pugh. Australian artists influenced by the modern American and European art include cubist Grace Crowley, surrealist James Gleeson, abstract expressionist Brett Whiteley, and pop artist Martin Sharp. The National Gallery of Australia and the various state galleries maintain Australian and overseas collections, from early in the 20th century until the present,

Sunlight Sweet by Australian landscape artist Arthur Streeton

Many of Australia's performing arts companies (see Theatre of Australia and Dance in Australia) receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each of the states' capital cities, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, which became prominent through the singer Joan Sutherland. Nellie Melba was her famous predecessor. Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state dance companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.

Performance of Aboriginal song and dance in the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney

The Australian cinema industry began with the 1906 release of the The Story of the Kelly Gang, which is regarded as being the world's first feature-length film.[108] The New Wave of Australian cinema in the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, some exploring the nation's colonial past, such as Picnic at Hanging Rock and Breaker Morant. Later hits included Mad Max and Gallipoli. More recent successes included Shine, Rabbit-Proof Fence, and Happy Feet. Australia's diverse landscapes and cities have served as primary locations for many other films, such as The Matrix, Peter Pan, Superman Returns, and Finding Nemo. Recent well-known Australian actors include Judith Anderson, Errol Flynn, Nicole Kidman, Hugh Jackman, Heath Ledger, Geoffrey Rush, Toni Collette, Naomi Watts, and current joint director of the Sydney Theatre Company, Cate Blanchett.

Australian literature has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as Banjo Paterson, Henry Lawson, and Dorothea Mackellar captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as represented in early literature, is popular with modern Australians. In 1973, Patrick White was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this. Colleen McCullough, Thomas Keneally, David Williamson, and David Malouf are also renowned writers.

Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations (see Television in Australia and Media of Australia). Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. According to Reporters Without Borders in 2008, Australia was in 25th position on a list of 173 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (7th) and the United Kingdom (23rd) but ahead of the United States (48th). This low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia;[109] in particular, most Australian print media are under the control of News Corporation and Fairfax Media.

Australian food traditions have been shaped by those that have settled in Australia. Throughout the majority of Australian history, Australian cuisine was based on traditional British food, brought to the country by the first British settlers. Later, in the 19th and especially 20th century, food began to reflect the influences of Mediterranean and Asian cultures, introduced by many immigrants who arrived in Australia during this period.

Cricket has been an important part of Australia's sporting culture since the 19th Century

Approximately 24% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities in Australia.[79] Australia has strong international teams in cricket, soccer / football, field hockey, netball, rugby league, rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing, and swimming. Some of Australia's most successful sportspersons are swimmers Dawn Fraser, Murray Rose, and Ian Thorpe, sprinter Betty Cuthbert, tennis players Rod Laver and Margaret Court, and cricketer Donald Bradman. Nationally, other popular sports include Australian rules football, horse racing, surfing, football (soccer), and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games of the modern era, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia hosted the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, and has ranked among the top six medal-takers since 2000.[110] Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982, and 2006 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held in Australia include the Grand Slam Australian Open tennis tournament, international cricket matches, and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. The highest-rating television programs include sports coverage such as the summer Olympic Games, State of Origin, and the grand finals of the National Rugby League and Australian Football League.[111]

International rankings

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แม่แบบ:International rankings of Australia

See also

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Notes

[แก้]
  1. ^ Australia also has a royal anthem, "God Save the Queen (or King)", which is played in the presence of a member of the Royal family when they are in Australia. In all other appropriate contexts, the national anthem of Australia, "Advance Australia Fair", is played.[112]
  2. ^ English does not have de jure status.[100]
  3. ^ There are minor variations from these three time zones, see Time in Australia.
  4. ^ Australia describes the body of water south of its mainland as the Southern Ocean, rather than the Indian Ocean as defined by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO). In 2000, a vote of IHO member nations defined the term "Southern Ocean" as applying only to the waters between Antarctica and 60 degrees south latitude.
  5. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary records a first occurrence in 1908, in the form Oss.
  6. ^ Oz is often taken as an oblique reference to the fictional Land of Oz in the film The Wizard of Oz (1939), based on L. Frank Baum's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900).[113] Australians' "image of Australia as a 'Land of Oz' is not new, and dedication to it runs deep".[114] The spelling Oz is likely to have been influenced by the 1939 film, though the pronunciation was probably always with a /z/, as it is also for Aussie, sometimes spelt Ozzie.[115] The Baz Luhrmann film Australia (2008) makes repeated reference to The Wizard of Oz, which appeared just before the wartime action of Australia. One reviewer writes: "You even nod with approval at Luhrmann's audacity for cribbing from 'The Wizard of Oz' in his depiction of his Land of Oz, Australia, as a magical place over the rainbow."[116] Some critics have even speculated that Baum was inspired by Australia, in naming the Land of Oz: "In Ozma of Oz (1907) Dorothy gets back to Oz as the result of a storm at sea while she and Uncle Henry are traveling by ship to Australia. So, like Australia, Oz is somewhere to the west of California. Like Australia, Oz is an island continent. Like Australia, Oz has inhabited regions bordering on a great desert. One might almost imagine that Baum intended Oz to be Australia, or perhaps a magical land in the center of the great Australian desert."[117]
  7. ^ "Ocker, n2 Austral. slang. ... A rough, uncultivated, or aggressively boorish Australian man (esp. as a stereotype)" SOED.

References

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  1. ↑ "Demonyms - Names of Nationalities". about.com. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-07-23.
  2. ↑ "Demonyms, or what do you call a person from ..." The Geography Site. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-07-25.
  3. ↑ "Population clock". Australian Bureau of Statistics. สืบค้นเมื่อ 10 October 2009.
  4. ↑ แม่แบบ:Census 2006 AUS
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 "Australia". International Monetary Fund. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-10-01.
  6. ↑ Human Development Report 2009. The United Nations. Retrieved 5 October 2009.
  7. ↑ Macquarie ABC Dictionary. The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. 2003. p. 56. ISBN 0 876429 37 2. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่า |isbn=: checksum (help)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Australia". Encyclopædia Britannica. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-08-22. "Smallest continent and sixth largest country (in area) on Earth, lying between the Pacific and Indian oceans."
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "Continents: What is a Continent?". National Geographic Society. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-08-22. "Most people recognize seven continents—Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia, from largest to smallest—although sometimes Europe and Asia are considered a single continent, Eurasia."
  10. ↑ First Australians Documentary (Episode 1), Special Broadcasting Service, Australia, 2008.
  11. ↑ Both Australian Aborigines and Europeans Rooted in Africa - 50,000 years ago.
  12. ↑ MacKnight, CC (1976). The Voyage to Marege: Macassan Trepangers in Northern Australia. Melbourne University Press.
  13. ↑ "Australia: World Audit Democracy Profile". WorldAudit.org. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-05.
  14. ↑ Purchas, vol. iv, pp. 1422–32, 1625. This appears to be variation of the original Spanish "Austrialia" [sic].[1] A copy at the Library of Congress can be read online [2].
  15. ↑ Sidney J. Baker, The Australian Language, second edition, 1966.
  16. ↑ Ferguson, John Alexander (1975). Bibliography of Australia: 1784-1830. Vol. 1 (reprint ed.). National Library Australia. p. 77. ISBN 0642990441.
  17. ↑ Estensen, Miriam (2002). The Life of Matthew Flinders. Allen & Unwin. p. 354. ISBN 1-74114 152 4.
  18. ↑ Flinder, Matthew (1814). A Voyage to Terra Australis.
  19. ↑ J. J. Bennett, บ.ก. (1866–68). "General remarks, geographical and systematical, on the botany of Terra Australis". The Miscellaneous Botanical Works of Robert Brown, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. Vol. 2. pp. 1–89.
  20. ↑ Mabberley, David (1985). Jupiter botanicus: Robert Brown of the British Museum. British Museum (Natural History). ISBN 3-7682-1408-7.
  21. ↑ Estensen p. 450.
  22. ↑ Weekend Australian, 30–31 December 2000, p. 16
  23. ↑ Australian pronunciations: Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition (2005). Melbourne, The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. ISBN 1-876429-14-3.
  24. ↑ Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. Radiocarbon 44:455–72; "Dating the First Australians". Ingenta. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-03-18.
  25. ↑ RJW (2004-03-29). "The Birth of the Commonwealth of Nations". Know-britain.com. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-10-07.
  26. ↑ Convict Records Public Record office of Victoria; State Records Office of Western Australia.
  27. ↑ Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998 Special Article—The State of New South Wales.
  28. ↑ Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra.
  29. ↑ "Smallpox Through History". คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2009-10-31.
  30. ↑ Tatz, Colin (1999). "Genocide in Australia". AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8. Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2005-08-08. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-09-13.
  31. ↑ Bain Attwood, Telling the Truth about Aboriginal History. (2005) online edition.
  32. ↑ Official year book of the Commonwealth of Australia – Google Books. Books.google.com. 1957. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-10-07.
  33. ↑ Stuart Macintyre, The Oxford History of Australia: vol 4 (1986), p. 142; C. Bean Ed. (1941). Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase, First World War Official Histories, Eleventh Edition.
  34. ↑ "First World War 1914 – 1918". Australian War Memorial. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2006-12-05.
  35. ↑ Macintyre, 151–3; Liz Reed, Bigger than Gallipoli: war, history, and memory in Australia‎ (2004) p. 5 online.
  36. ↑ Hank Nelson, "Gallipoli, Kokoda and the Making of National Identity", Journal of Australian Studies, (1997) v. 53#1 pp. 148–160 online edition.
  37. ↑ Australia Act text.
  38. ↑ Parliamentary Library (1997). The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General.
  39. ↑ Evans, Tim (2006). "Compulsory Voting in Australia" (PDF). Australian Electoral Commission. p. 4. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-06-21.
  40. ↑ "What happens if I do not vote?". Voting Australia – Frequently Asked Questions. Australian Electoral Commission. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-08.
  41. ↑ "www.ag.gov.au Administrator of Norfolk Island". Australian Government Attorney-General's Department. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-07-21.
  42. ↑ Japan-Australia Relations, www.mofa.go.jp.
  43. ↑ Australian Government. (2005). Budget 2005–2006.
  44. ↑ Center for Global Development. Commitment to Development Index: Australia, www.cgdev.org. Retrieved on 5 January 2008.
  45. ↑ "Section 3: Management and Accountability (Chapter 4: People Management)" (PDF). Defence Annual Report 2007-08. Department of Defence. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-01-31. (pp. 99–100).
  46. ↑ Australian Department of Defence (2006).Portfolio Budget Statements 2006–07. p. 19.
  47. ↑ Everingham, Sara. Australia ranks 27th on peace index (2008), www.abc.net.au Retrieved on 23 January 2008.
  48. ↑ Khosa, Raspal (2004). Australian Defence Almanac 2004–05. Canberra: Australian Strategic Policy Institute. p. 4.
  49. ↑ "Australia's Size Compared". Geoscience Australia. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-05-19.
  50. ↑ "Islands". Geoscience Australia. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-08-22. "Being surrounded by ocean, Australia often is referred to as an island continent. As a continental landmass it is significantly larger than the many thousands of fringing islands ..."
  51. ↑ "Australia in Brief: The island continent". Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-05-29. "Mainland Australia, with an area of 7.69 million square kilometres, is the Earth’s largest island but smallest continent."
  52. ↑ "State of the Environment 2006". Department of the Environment and Water Resources. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-05-19.
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  54. ↑ "Mount Augustus". The Sydney Morning Herald. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-05-19.
  55. ↑ No more drought: it's a "permanent dry"; Australia's epic drought: The situation is grim.
  56. ↑ "About Biodiversity". Department of the Environment and Heritage. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2007-02-05. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-09-18.
  57. ↑ Lambertini, A Naturalist's Guide to the Tropics, excerpt at www.press.uchicago.edu.
  58. ↑ "Australia - UNESCO World Heritage Centre". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Whc.unesco.org. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-09-05.
  59. ↑ "2008 Environmental Performance Index". Yale University. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-09-05.
  60. ↑ "Snake Bite", The Australian Venom Compendium.
  61. ↑ Savolainen, P. et al. 2004. A detailed picture of the origin of the Australian dingo, obtained from the study of mitochondrial DNA. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101:12387–12390 PMID.
  62. ↑ Humans to blame for extinction of Australia's megafauna. The University of Melbourne.
  63. ↑ "Additional Thylacine Topics: Persecution". The Thylacine Museum. 2006. สืบค้นเมื่อ 27 November 2006. {{cite web}}: ไม่รู้จักพารามิเตอร์ |dateformat= ถูกละเว้น (help); "National Threatened Species Day". Department of the Environment and Heritage, Australian Government. 2006. สืบค้นเมื่อ 21 November 2006. {{cite web}}: ไม่รู้จักพารามิเตอร์ |dateformat= ถูกละเว้น (help)
  64. ↑ Atmosphere: Major issue: climate change, Australian State of the Environment Committee, 2006.
  65. ↑ ANU poll finds ‘it’s the environment, stupid’, www.anu.edu.au. Retrieved on 8 January 2008.
  66. ↑ Australia Sets Target of 15% Carbon Reduction by 2020, Announces 2010 Carbon Market, www.greencarcongress.com. Retrieved on 8 January 2008.
  67. ↑ "Regional Rainfall Trends". Bom.gov.au. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-07-08.
  68. ↑ "Annual Australian Climate Statement 2008". Bureau of Meteorology. Bom.gov.au. 2009-01-05. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-09-05.
  69. ↑ Saving Australia's water, BBC News, 23 April 2008.
  70. ↑ http://www.asx.com.au/about/pdf/asx_speech_eric_mayne_061106.pdf
  71. ↑ Melbourne 'world's top city' (2004), The Age. Retrieved on 31 January 2009.
  72. ↑ "Liveability ranking: Urban idylls.
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  75. ↑ Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century. Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin, October.
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  103. ↑ NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance, National Church Life Survey, Media release, 28 February 2004.
  104. ↑ Morris, Lindy. God's OK, it's just the religion bit we don't like (2008), Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved on 5 January 2008.
  105. ↑ OECD 42/8/39700724.
  106. ↑ Education at Glance 2005 by OECD: Percentage of foreign students in tertiary education.
  107. ↑ Welch, David. "Aboriginal Fine Arts Gallery", aaia.com.au. Retrieved on 2 November 2008.
  108. ↑ Jo Chichester (2007). "Return of the Kelly Gang". The UNESCO Courier. UNESCO. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-02-01.
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  111. ↑ "Australian Film Commission. What are Australians Watching?" Free-to-Air, 1999–2004 TV.
  112. ↑ It's an Honour - Symbols - Australian National Anthem and DFAT - "The Australian National Anthem"; "National Symbols" (PDF). Parliamentary Handbook of the Commonwealth of Australia (29th ed.). 2002 (updated 2005). สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-06-07. {{cite book}}: ตรวจสอบค่าวันที่ใน: |year= (help)
  113. ↑ Jacobson, H., In the Land of Oz, Penguin, 1988, ISBN 0140109668.
  114. ↑ The Americana Annual: 1988, Americana Corporation, vol. 13, 1989, p. 66, ISBN 0717202208.
  115. ↑ Partridge, E., et al., The New Partridge Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English, Taylor & Francis, 2006, ISBN 041525938X, entries "Oz" and "Ozzie", p. 1431.
  116. ↑ " 'Australia' too big to be controlled", The Salt Lake Tribune.
  117. ↑ Algeo, J., "Australia as the Land of Oz", American Speech, Vol. 65, No. 1, 1990, pp. 86–89.

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