Lingua sánscrita

Sánscrito; 'संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam'
Falado en:	Sur de Asia
Rexións:	A India e outras áreas da Asia Meridional, partes do Sueste da Asia
Total de falantes:	Non existen falantes nativos de sánscrito.
Familia:	Indoeuropea; Indoaria; Sánscrito
Status oficial
Lingua oficial de:	India (unha das linguas oficiais)
Códigos de lingua
ISO 639-1:	sa
ISO 639-2:	san
ISO 639-3:	san
Mapa
Status

Este artigo amosa letras indias. Sen o soporte axeitado, o texto pode mostrar símbolos sen sentido, coma caixas, marcas e outros.

O sánscrito^[7] (saṃskr̥tam / संस्कृतम) é unha lingua indoeuropea, da familia indoirania, outrora falada no subcontinente indio. En especial, é a lingua dos textos relixiosos hindús e, neste senso, segue a ser utilizada, ao xeito do latín nos séculos pasados en Occidente, como lingua de culto, cultural e vehicular (un censo de 1981 indica que habería aínda cerca de 6100 falantes; en 1961 aproximadamente 194400 persoas dicían que o empregaban como lingua secundaria). É ademais unha das vinte e dúas linguas oficias da India. O sánscrito é unha lingua altamente flexiva e moi arcaizante, cuxo estudo é fundamental no marco da lingüística comparada.

Historia

O termo sánscrito designa máis un conxunto de linguas saídas dunha lingua nai estendida no tempo e no espazo ca unha lingua única. O seu nome, saṃskr̥tam, que significa "rematado" (véxase máis abaixo), é bastante recente; a lingua durante séculos foi chamada simplemente vāc ou śabda, « a palabra, a lingua », pois o sánscrito era sentido como a única lingua posíbel; algunhas designacións metafóricas, como gīrvāṇabhāṣā, «lingua dos deuses », remarcan ben o seu carácter relixioso.

O primeiro senso de sánscrito é o de "indoario antigo", lingua nai que está na orixe de multitude de dialectos, e lingua irmá do iranio antigo (ou avéstico) co que está moi relacionado. De acordo con documentos atopados no país dos hititas e redactados nesta outra lingua indoeuropea, que incluían algúns nomes indoiranios, é posíbel determinar que unha forma do indoiranio era falada no século XIV a.C.. A forma máis antiga de sánscrito testemuñada de maneira máis tanxíbel é chamado védico: é a lingua na que están redactados os Vedas, entre os cales está o R̥g Veda ou « Veda dos himnos (r̥g-) », o máis antigo conxunto de textos do hinduísmo. Porén é moi difícil datar o R̥g Veda en si, e, xa que logo, o comezo da historia real da lingua védica: os textos sagrados, en efecto, eran ante todo recitados e aprendidos de memoria (aínda o son agora) e a súa fixación por escrito é relativamente recente. Ademais, a súa composición prolóngase varios séculos. Algúns supoñen que os textos máis antigos remontan a mediados do século II. Esta lingua arcaica e pouco normativizada é unha das máis próximas ao indoeuropeo e móstrase preciosa para a lingüística comparada. A título indicativo, pódese indicar as principais diferenzas entre o sánscrito védico e o sánscrito clásico (véxase máis abaixo esta noción de clásico):

numerosas formas paralelas e irregularidades, que o sánscrito clásico ha nivelar;
flexión nominal e pronominal máis desenvolvida;
máis formas de participios e xerundios;
utilización frecuente dun subxuntivo do que carece o sánscrito clásico;
doce formas de infinitivo, contra unha do clásico;
presenza dun acento de altura;
regras de sandhi (véxase máis abaixo) menos obrigatorias etc.

Unha forma tardía do védico, que xa evolucionou (nótase a desaparición do subxuntivo, por exemplo), conforma o sánscrito preclásico, usado nos arredores do século V ou IV a.C. É este sánscrito o que Pāṇini, sen dúbida o primeiro gramático da antigüidade (aínda que a súa visión estruturalista só pode ser o froito dunha herdanza máis antiga), describe fonolóxica e gramaticalmente nunha obra dunha precisión e dun rigor formal sen igual ata o desenvolvemento da lingüística moderna, ben máis tarde. Este dedícase a describir no seu tratado, o Aṣṭādhyāyī, a lingua que el fala e subliña as fórmulas que considera propias dos himnos védicos, sen dicir realmente que son arcaicas. A lingua comeza a se normalizar.

No século III d.C., os primeiros prácritos (ou prākr̥ta, «[ingua] ordinaria ») aparecen testemuñados, en especial grazas ás inscricións de Ashoka. Estas linguas así designadas correspóndense a dialectos menos "nobres" que o sánscrito, é dicir, linguas vulgares e vernáculas de uso cotián que, rapidamente, se separan unha das outras e dan orixe á multitude de linguas indoarias presentes no subcontinente indio. Todas saídas do antigo indoario, elas coñecen cada unha unha evolución e un destino diferentes. É de tales prácritos de onde proveñen, entre outras, as linguas modernas como o hindī, o pañjābī, ou mesmo o bangālī. Estas linguas son «vulgares» do mesmo xeito que o latín vulgar, é dicir « faladas polo pobo »; o seu estatuto de idiomas vernáculos vivos, de linguas consideradas inferiores polo tanto, explica por que hai que esperar cando menos ao século XIX para que a literatura en linguas modernas suplante finalmente á escrita en sánscrito.

Ademais das inscricións de Ashoka, numerosas citas en prácritos están tamén testemuñadas en textos sánscritos, especialmente no teatro, onde as personaxes de rango inferior se expresan xeralmente en lingua vernácula. Estes testemuños, porén, son esencialmente literarios, e non poden ser tomados como totalmente reais. Pódese establecer unha analoxía co «patois» usado en certas obras de Molière, como Dom Juan, que serven para representar unha fala popular; o que aí aparece non pode ser tomado como unha atestación real das linguas vernáculas francesas da súa época, pero son susceptíbeis, mutatis mutandis, de nos aprender algo acerca destas linguas. A literatura prácrita está porén representada de maneira independente, pero a miúdo enmascarada polo sánscrito clásico. Un dos prácritos, o pāḷi, coñece un destino diferente: volto el tamén lingua sagrada, a do budismo teravada, non evoluciona case nada e emprégase tal cal na liturxia e nas exéxeses ata os nosos días. Finalmente, o canon jain, redactado nun prácrito chamado ardhamāgadhī, ofrece numerosos testemuños, aínda que outra volta literarios, dunha das linguas vulgares realmente faladas na antigüidade india.

É nos comentarios que Patañjali fai da gramática de Pāṇini (na súa obra chamada Mahābhāṣya), no século II a.C., onde aparecen as primeiras críticas: o comentarista proba que o sánscrito é aínda unha lingua viva, pero salpicada de formas dialectais; é recoñecida, pois, a existencia dos prácritos e rexeitada a utilización de formas vulgares; a noción de norma gramatical aparece máis fortemente, e é a partir deste momento que o sánscrito vai ser fixado para devir o sánscrito clásico, por fin designado nos textos por medio do vocábulo saṃskr̥ta (o cal non é porén empregado por Patañjali), propiamente « rematado », « perfectamente preparado » (dise tamén da comida). A lingua, tras a era cristiá, deixa de ser falada de forma natural: está perfectamente descrita pola gramática e xa non evoluciona máis. É unha lingua cultural e relixiosa, sen vínculo directo coas linguas vivas, usada a miúdo como lingua franca e como lingua literaria (mesmo polos pobos que non falaban unha lingua saída do antigo indio, como os falantes de linguas dravídicas, ata que as linguas neoindias xurdidas dos prácritos, ao redor do século XIV d.C., comezan realmente a se impoñer na escrita para, no século XIX d.C., suplantar ao sánscrito na produción literaria. É notábel que o tamiḻ, lingua dravídica sen relación de filiación co sánscrito, fóra dunha cultura tamén moi antiga, estivo en competencia co sánscrito moito antes, desde os primeiros séculos da nosa era.

A historia do sánscrito pódese resumir así:

o antigo indio, antecesor de todas as linguas indoarias, está representado sobre todo polo védico, logo sánscrito clásico que, ao se fixar, abandona o seu estatuto de lingua viva para volverse un idioma literario e inmutábel;
seguindo a evolución, o antigo indio dá orixe a unha multitude de linguas - o indio medio - denominadas prácritos, entre eles o pāḷi, que deixa de evolucionar;
finalmente, o indio medio evoluciona ao neo-indio, é dicir, ás linguas vivas modernas, como o hindī ou o bangālī.

De tal sorte que todas as linguas neo-indias derivan do sánscrito.

As escrituras do sánscrito

Tendo unha tradición oral como a que ten, o hinduísmo non precisou fixar os seus textos. Só tardiamente se xeneraliza o emprego do brāhmī nun primeiro momento (alfasilabario usado para os editos de Ashoka) e despois da multitude de escrituras que del derivan, primeiro para os textos profanos, logo para os sagrados. Cada rexión da India utiliza a escritura que lle serve para notar a súa propia lingua para escribir textos sánscritos; de tal sorte, o sánscrito non ten escritura propia e, sobre todo, pode ser notado por diferentes alfasilabarios, que deben, polo tanto, ser capaces de representaren certos fonemas que normalmente non empregarían. Pódese dar un exemplo desta flexibilidade de uso das escrituras indias cunha mesma frase sánscrita notada en varias grafías:

Que Śiva abenzoe aos amantes da lingua dos deuses. (Kālidāsa)

Son os colonos ingleses os que, durante o seu dominio, impuxeron unha destas escrituras, a devanágari, que tamén xurdiu da brāhmī. Hoxe en día o sánscrito é escrito maioritariamente en devanágari tanto na India como nas edicións occidentais.

Ademais, ao se transmitiren polo budismo, termos sánscritos foron adaptados ao chinés e logo ao xaponés, cuxas escrituras logográficas reclaman a creación de caracteres fonéticos destinados a este uso ou a utulización de caracteres independentemente do seu sentido; así, o termo sánscrito bodhisattva é notado 菩提薩埵, que se lía probabelmentebu-dej-sat-thwa en chinés medio (hoxe pútísàduǒ, abreviado en 菩薩 púsà). Destes caracteres so 提 tí, « tirar », e 埵 duǒ, « terra compacta », teñen significado, que é deixado de lado no composto en beneficio do son, mentres que 菩 e 薩 nunca aparecen fóra desta transcrición e non teñen ningún significado á parte.

Finalmente, o X Congreso dos Orientalistas fixa, en 1894 en Xenebra, unha transcrición latina que, hoxe, é a única utilizada nas obras didácticas occidentais. É esta mesma transcrición a que, lixeiramente aumentada, permite tamén transcribir todas as outras linguas indias, sexan ou non indoarias,, por medio dos mesmos símbolos. Esta transcrición descríbese en detalle en trascrición das linguas indias.

Traducións ao galego

O Pañcatantra foi a primeira tradución directa do sánscrito ao galego.^[8]

Características principais

Fonoloxía

Ver Sánscrito (fonoloxía)

Morfoloxía

Ver Sánscrito (morfoloxía)

Notas

↑ McCartney, Patrick (10 de maio de 2020). "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a “Sanskrit village” where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."
↑ McCartney, Patrick (11 de maio de 2020). "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every “block” (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."
↑ Sreevastan, Ajai (10 de agosto de 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu (Chennai). Consultado o 11 de outubro de 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.
↑ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.
↑ Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech
↑ Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". En Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar. Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.
↑ Definicións no Dicionario da Real Academia Galega e no Portal das Palabras para sánscrito.
↑ Salgado, Daniel (7 de setembro de 2017). "Primeira tradución do sánscrito ao galego". Sermos Galiza. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 08 de setembro de 2017. Consultado o 8 de setembro de 2017.

Véxase tamén

Outros artigos

Wikipedia en sánscrito

Bibliografía

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[patrick-mccartney-5-10-20-1] McCartney, Patrick (10 de maio de 2020). "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a “Sanskrit village” where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."

[patrick-mccartney-5-11-20-2] McCartney, Patrick (11 de maio de 2020). "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every “block” (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."

[sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit-3] Sreevastan, Ajai (10 de agosto de 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu (Chennai). Consultado o 11 de outubro de 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.

[Lowe2017-4] Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.

[Ruppel2017-5] Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech

[KachruKachru2008-6] Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". En Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar. Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.

[7] Definicións no Dicionario da Real Academia Galega e no Portal das Palabras para sánscrito.

[8] Salgado, Daniel (7 de setembro de 2017). "Primeira tradución do sánscrito ao galego". Sermos Galiza. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 08 de setembro de 2017. Consultado o 8 de setembro de 2017.

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