Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya
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Lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya ni jamii ya lugha iliyo kubwa kuliko zote duniani. Imekadiriwa kuna lugha hai 445 za jamii hiyo na wasemaji bilioni 3.2 katika mabara yote (46% za watu wote wa leo).
Uenezi huo umetokana hasa na historia ya ukoloni wa Kizungu uliopeleka lugha za Ulaya pande zote za dunia.
Lugha zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 100 ni: Kihispania, Kiingereza, Kihindustani (Kihindi/Kiurdu), Kireno, Kibengali, Kipanjabi na Kirusi.
Nyingine zenye wasemaji zaidi ya milioni 50 ni: Kijerumani, Kifaransa, Kimarathi, Kiitalia na Kiajemi.
Jina la Kihindi-Kiulaya
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Jina la Kihindi-Kiulaya limepatikana tangu karne ya 19. Wataalamu walitambua ya kwamba lugha za kale zinazotunzwa kimaandishi kama Kilatini, Kigiriki, Kisanskrit na Kiajemi cha Kale zinafanana kati yake pia na lugha nyingine za kisasa za Ulaya na Uhindi wa Kaskazini.
Lugha za jamii ya Kihindi-Kiulaya zinafanana katika msamiati na sarufi.
Nadharia ya asili na usambazaji
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Inaaminika ya kwamba lugha hizo zilikuwa na asili moja katika lugha isiyojulikana tena ya Kihindi-Kiulaya asilia.
Wasemaji wake wanaaminiwa kuwa walisambaa takriban miaka 6,000 iliyopita kutoka sehemu za Asia ya Magharibi. Sehemu ilikwenda magharibi na kuingia Ulaya, sehemu nyingine ilikwenda Uajemi na Bara Hindi.
Kuna nadharia mbalimbali kuhusu historia hiyo.
Kati ya lugha hizo kuna zifuatazo:
- ( † inamaanisha ya kwamba lugha hii haina wasemaji tena kama lugha hai)
- Kialbania
- Lugha za Kianatolia †
- Kiarmenia
- Lugha za Kibalti-Kislavoni
- Kislavoni cha Mashariki (k.m. Kirusi, Kiukraine)
- Kislavoni cha Magharibi (k.m. Kipolandi, Kicheki, Kislovakia)
- Kislavoni cha Kusini (k.m. Kibulgaria, Kiserbia, Kikroatia)
- Kibalti (k.m. Kilituania na Kilatvia)
- Lugha za Kigermanik
- Kigiriki
- Lugha za Kihindi-Kiajemi (ndilo kundi kubwa, likiwa na lugha hai 313)
- Lugha za Kihindi-Kiarya (k.m. Kisanskrit †, Kihindi, Kiurdu)
- Kiajemi (k.m. Kiajemi cha Kale, Kiajemi, Kidari, Kikurdi)
- Lugha za Kinuristani
- Lugha za Kiitalia
- Lugha za Kirumi (k.m. Kilatini †, Kiitalia, Kifaransa, Kihispania, Kireno, Kiromania)
- Lugha za Kiumbria †
- Lugha za Kiselti (k.m. Kiskoti, Kiwelisi, Kieire)
- Lugha za Kitokari †
Marejeo
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Auroux, Sylvain (2000). History of the Language Sciences. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-016735-1.
- Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0315-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Brugmann, Karl (1886). Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (kwa Kijerumani). Juz. la Erster Band. Strassburg: Karl J. Trübner.
- Houwink ten Cate, H.J.; Melchert, H. Craig; van den Hout, Theo P.J. (1981). "Indo-European languages, The parent language, Laryngeal theory". Encyclopædia Britannica. Juz. la 22 (tol. la 15th). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|lastauthoramp=ignored (|name-list-style=suggested) (help) - Holm, Hans J. (2008). "The Distribution of Data in Word Lists and its Impact on the Subgrouping of Languages". Katika Preisach, Christine; Burkhardt, Hans; Schmidt-Thieme, Lars; na wenz. (whr.). Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Applications. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Conference of the German Classification Society (GfKl), University of Freiburg, March 7–9, 2007. Heidelberg-Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-78239-1.
- Kortlandt, Frederik (1990). "The Spread of the Indo-Europeans" (PDF). Journal of Indo-European Studies. 18 (1–2): 131–40.
- Lubotsky, A. (1988). "The Old Phrygian Areyastis-inscription" (PDF). Kadmos. 27: 9–26. doi:10.1515/kadmos-1988-0103.
- Kortlandt, Frederik (1988). "The Thraco-Armenian consonant shift". Linguistique Balkanique. 31: 71–74.
- Lane, George S.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1981). "The Tocharian problem". Encyclopædia Britannica. Juz. la 22 (tol. la 15th). Chicago: Helen Hemingway Benton.
- Porzig, Walter (1954). Die Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Renfrew, C. (2001). "The Anatolian origins of Proto-Indo-European and the autochthony of the Hittites". Katika Drews, R. (mhr.). Greater Anatolia and the Indo-Hittite language family. Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man. ISBN 978-0-941694-77-3.
- Schleicher, August (1861). Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (kwa German). Weimar: Böhlau (reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag). ISBN 978-3-8102-1071-5.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Szemerényi, Oswald; Jones, David; Jones, Irene (1999). Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823870-6.
- von Bradke, Peter (1890). Über Methode und Ergebnisse der arischen (indogermanischen) Alterthumswissenshaft (kwa Kijerumani). Giessen: J. Ricker'che Buchhandlung.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
Marejeo mengine
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Beekes, Robert S.P. (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
- Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 978-81-7074-128-2.
- Collinge, N.E. (1985). The Laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
- Mallory, J.P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7.
- Renfrew, Colin (1987). Archaeology & Language. The Puzzle of the Indo-European Origins. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-02495-2.
- Meillet, Antoine. Esquisse d'une grammaire comparée de l'arménien classique, 1903.
- Ramat, Paolo; Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European languages. Routledge.
- Schleicher, August, A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages (1861/62).
- Strazny, Philip; Trask, R.L., whr. (2000). Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics (tol. la 1). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-57958-218-0.
- Szemerényi, Oswald (1957). "The problem of Balto-Slav unity". Kratylos. 2: 97–123.
- Watkins, Calvert (2000). The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08250-6.
- Remys, Edmund, General distinguishing features of various Indo-European languages and their relationship to Lithuanian. Berlin, New York: Indogermanische Forschungen, Vol. 112, 2007.
- P. Chantraine (1968), Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, Klincksieck, Paris.
Viungo vingine
[hariri | hariri chanzo]
Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu:
Databases
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Dyen, Isidore; Kruskal, Joseph; Black, Paul (1997). "Comparative Indo-European". wordgumbo. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Indo-European". LLOW Languages of the World. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2017-10-10. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Indo-European Documentation Center". Linguistics Research Center, University of Texas at Austin. 2009. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 3 Septemba 2009. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Lewis, M. Paul, mhr. (2009). "Language Family Trees: Indo-European". Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Online version (tol. la Sixteenth). Dallas, Tex.: SIL International..
- "Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien: TITUS" (kwa German). TITUS, University of Frankfurt. 2003. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
Lexica
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- "Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED)". Leiden, Netherlands: Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics, Leiden University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 7 Februari 2006. Iliwekwa mnamo 14 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Indo-European Roots Index". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (tol. la Fourth). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. Agosti 22, 2008 [2000]. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo Februari 17, 2009. Iliwekwa mnamo 9 Desemba 2009.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Köbler, Gerhard (2014). Indogermanisches Wörterbuch (kwa German) (tol. la 5th). Gerhard Köbler. Iliwekwa mnamo 29 Machi 2015.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Schalin, Johan (2009). "Lexicon of Early Indo-European Loanwords Preserved in Finnish". Johan Schalin. Iliwekwa mnamo 9 Desemba 2009.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
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