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Kapu (caste)

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Kapu
ClassificationForward caste
ReligionsHinduism
LanguagesTelugu
CountryIndia
Populated statesMajor:
Andhra Pradesh
Yanam
Minor:
Telangana
Orissa
RegionSouth India
SubdivisionsTelaga, Ontari

Kapu is a Hindu caste primarily found in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Kapus are classified as a Forward caste,[8] and are a community of land-owning agriculturists.[17] Historically, they also served as military generals (Nayakas) and warriors in Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara Empire.[18][22] Kapus are a dominant caste of Andhra Pradesh.[28] They are primarily present in Coastal Andhra, with a major concentration in the Godavari-Krishna delta region.[1][29] Kapus commonly use the title Naidu.[37]

The Kapu caste includes the subcastes Telaga and Ontari, both historically recognized as warrior communities known for their honour and bravery.[18][38] The terms Kapu and Telaga are often used interchangeably.[39] The origins of the Telagas are linked to the Velanadu chiefs (1076–1216 CE), who ruled Coastal Andhra and gradually became known as Telagas.[40][41] In most of Coastal Andhra, Kapu, Telaga, and Ontari are all referred to as Kapu, except in the former Srikakulam and Vizianagaram districts, where they are specifically known as Telagas.[42][43] The Kapu caste is closely related to the Balija community of Rayalaseema, and the two groups are often categorized together in governmental and sociological contexts.[50]

Kapus of Coastal Andhra are distinct from other similarly named communities like the Munnuru Kapus of Telangana, the Turpu Kapus of Uttarandhra, and the Reddys of Rayalaseema and Telangana.[7][51]

Etymology

Kāpu literally means cultivator or protector in Telugu.[52] More specifically, Kāpu refers to landowning cultivators in the context of the Jajmani system.[51] In several places, the landowning cultivators are addressed by the agricultural labourers as Kāpu.[31]: 11 

History

Origins

Various subgroups of Kapus (cultivators) branched off into separate communities in the post-Kakatiya period (Velamas, Panta Kapus and Pakanati Kapus—both of whom got labelled Reddys, and Kapus of Kammanadu—eventually labelled Kammas).[53] The remaining Kapus continue to use the original label.[54] B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao while explaining the term Kapu noted, "people who are into cultivation, or farming, but who do not belong to Kammas, Reddys and Velamas are known as Kapus."[55] All the cultivator caste clusters have a common ancestry in the legends.[54] According to Cynthia Talbot, the transformation of occupational identities as caste labels occurred in the late Vijayanagara period or later.[56]

Medieval era

An inscription dating to 1205 CE (1127 Saka year) mentions Teliki Kapulu, which K. Iswara Dutt interprets as referring to Telagas.[57]

The earliest occupation of Kapu community was farming along with military service.[58][59] In the medieval period, Kapus served as protectors of villages from bandits and as village headmen. They were recruited into army during periods of war and served as governors (nayaks), commanders and soldiers in various Andhra kingdoms.[60] They returned to agriculture during times of peace.[59] Kapus were one of the five major land-owning castes during the Qutub Shahi (1518–1687) rule.[61] Hanumantha Rao notes that Kapus have embraced military as well as farming till the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire.[62]

Kapu sub-castes like Telagas and Ontaris were recorded as warrior communities in the medieval era.[18] Ontaris were elite warriors who engaged in hand-to-hand combat and wielded heavy weapons like maces.[21] They were great wrestlers and received rent-free lands for their military service. Inscriptions from the 15th century register gifts of lands to temples by Ontarlu.[63][21]

During the medieval era, many Nayakas were Telagas along with Velamas and Balijas.[64][65][66] There existed Nayak (Telaga) regiments in the Vijayanagara Empire and they later joined the British army after the fall of Vijayanagara.[67] Telagas in British army held ranks such as Major, Naik, Subedar, Jemadar, Havildar etc.[38] Telagas of Bobbili served as commanders and generals in armies.[68] They formed a major part of the Bobbili army along with Velamas in the famous Battle of Bobbili in 1757.[69][70][71]

In the late medieval era, Telagas led the right-hand caste faction, which included Komatis and various other castes, in Machilipatnam and other places of Andhra.[72] At the end of the eighteenth century, Telagas, along with Niyogi Brahmins, were the leaders of the Maha-nadu, a multi-caste assembly to enforce norms in the society.[72]

Colonial era

During the colonial regime, Kapu-Telaga along with other warrior castes dominated military occupations.[73] When the British reduced military recruitment from agrarian castes and opted for lower castes in order to have more control over the army, Kapus concentrated on agriculture.[62] Kapus held the village headman and munasabu (munsif) position in many villages.[74][75][76][77] In the Godavari districts, some Kapus also held the Karanam (village accountant) post, usually the preserve of Niyogi Brahmins.[78]

Raghupathi Venkataratnam Naidu is among the 34 historical icons of Telugu culture commemorated with a bronze statue on Tank Bund
Kanneganti Hanumanthu

The latter half of the 19th century saw the emergence of important social reformers, educationists and literary figures, who left an impact on the social consciousness of the people of Andhra.[79] Prominent Kapus like Raghupati Venkataratnam Naidu and Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu were at the forefront of the social reform movement.[80][79] Raghupathi Venkataratnam Naidu (1862–1939) worked for the eradication of untouchability, promoted widow remarriages, encouraged women's education, and strived for a reformation of the Devadasi system.[81][82][83] Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu (1875–1942), a prominent leader of the Justice Party, formulated policies that promoted social equality, abolition of untouchability, social reform and established the first women's college in Andhra region in Eluru.[84][85]

Kanneganti Hanumanthu (1870–1922), a Kapu from Palnadu region, rebelled against the British rule and spearheaded the Palnadu Rebellion.[86] When the British imposed 'Pullari' tax on farmers for using the forest produce, Hanumanthu mobilised people to not pay the tax and organised a social boycott of Revenue and Forest department officials. British executed Hanumanthu by a firing squad in 1922.[87] Many Kapus participated in the Swadesi movement, civil disobedience movement and the Quit India movement.[88][89][90]

Since Kapu was a generic term for people involved in kapudanam (farming), the British India censuses from 1871 till 1921 clubbed Kapus together with Reddys for enumeration purposes.[91] But, Reddys are distinct from the Kapu community of Coastal Andhra.[92][93][51]

Present-day

Apart from zamindars and large landlords, many Kapus are small-and-medium landholding farmers.[94] Historically, Kapus owned most of the land in the Godavari districts.[95] They also own most of the coconut fields and affiliated agri-businesses in Konaseema region.[96]

Some Kapus also diversified their surplus economy into several entrepreneurial domains like movie theatres and hotels in cities like Visakhapatnam, Kakinada, Rajahmundry.[97][98] There are also multigenerational Kapu military families in places like Madhavaram in West Godavari.[70] As of 2011, the percentage of graduates among Kapus is one of the highest among Telugu castes.[99]

Film industry

Kapus have historically played a prominent role in Telugu cinema. Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu, a Kapu from Machilipatnam, was the first Telugu film producer and exhibitor and is regarded as the "father of Telugu cinema".[100] Kapus figure as A-list actors, directors, producers, screenwriters, music composers and technicians in the Telugu film industry. Well-known Telugu cinema icons like S. V. Ranga Rao, Savitri, Chiranjeevi, Pawan Kalyan, Allu Arjun, Ram Charan, Dasari Narayana Rao hail from the Kapu community.[101][102][103]

Geographical distribution

Native

Kapus are primarily present in the Coastal Andhra region with major concentration in the erstwhile districts of East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur, and Visakhapatnam.[29][104] They are present in smaller numbers in the former districts of Srikakulam and Vizianagaram (where they are primarily referred to as Telagas), and in Prakasam.[104][51] Kapus are also native to Yanam district of Puducherry and are the second largest caste there.[105][106]

Diaspora

A significant number of Kapu settlers are present in the Hyderabad Metropolitan Region of Telangana.[107][108][109] Small communities of Telaga-Kapu also exist in Orissa and Kharagpur, West Bengal.[110][111]

In the 19th and early 20th century, Kapu-Telaga were among the Telugu migrants to Burma, Malaysia, Mauritius and Fiji.[112][113][114] Telagas were said to form the largest caste among the Telugu people of Mauritius.[113] In recent decades, Kapus have migrated to the Anglophone countries like United States.[115][112]

Distinct castes with similar names

There also exist other Kapu communities like the Munnuru Kapus in Telangana, and the Turpu Kapus in Uttarandhra who are enumerated separately from Coastal Andhra Kapus.[7]

Due to Kāpu being a generic Telugu term for landowning cultivator, Reddy caste is sometimes referred to as Kapu in parts of Rayalaseema and Telangana. But, Reddys are distinct from the Kapus of Coastal Andhra.[51][116][92] Kapu caste is also unrelated to Konda Kapu, Pattapu Kapu, Vanne Kapu, Palli Kapu, Are Kapu, Morasu Kapu, Kapu Savara castes.[117]

Telaga, a sub-caste of Kapu, has no relation to the Mudiraj and Teli castes who are sometimes referred to as Telaga.[118]

Subcastes

Kapu, Telaga and Ontari are the subcastes of Kapu community. All three frequently inter-marry and are usually classed as a single unit.[20]: 47 [119] Most Telagas and Ontaris have also referred to themselves as Kapus for a long time.[120][121] The terms Kapu and Telaga are often used as synonyms to collectively refer to all three sections.[39]

Kapu

Manati Kapu (మానాటి కాపు) or Mahanati Kapu (మహనాటి కాపు) is a section of Kapu community along with Telaga and Ontari.[38] They are popularly known as Kapus and are classified as a Forward caste. They are distinct from Turpu Kapus. Traditionally, Manati Kapus did not recognise divorce and their women would not leave their houses. They were agriculturists and were of a good social standing.[38] Manati Kapu and Telaga are together referred to as Pedda Kapu in comparison with Turpu Kapu.[43]

Charles Philip Brown's Telugu-English Dictionary (1852) mentions Mahanati Kapu as equivalent to Telaga caste.[128] Brown also notes that Mahanati Kapus were leaguesmen and members of the Mahanadu community.[129][130] Mahanadu was a multi-caste assembly which enforced norms in the society.[72][131][132] Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions that Manati Kapus were present in large numbers in erstwhile East and West Godavari districts and in smaller numbers in Krishna, Guntur, Visakhapatnam and Ganjam districts of Madras Presidency.[38]

Telaga

Main article: Telaga

Telaga is a subcaste of Kapu and both terms are often used synonymously.[39] Historians like Etukuru Balaramamurthy and Chintamani Lakshmanna note that Telagas are the descendants of dynasties like Velanadu chiefs (1076–1216 CE) who ruled Coastal Andhra.[40][41] Telagas are classified as a Forward caste.[142] They are a land-owning agrarian community.[150] Historically, they were a warrior caste before taking up cultivation.[18] During the colonial era, Telagas were noted to be of a high social position.[159][160][161]

Ontari

Ontari (also Vontari, Vantari) are a section of Kapu caste.[162][163][21] Ontaris are classified as a Forward caste. They are a small community and are primarily found in Kakinada and Anakapalli districts and in smaller numbers in erstwhile West Godavari and Guntur districts.[38][164] 1901 Census of India describers vantarlu as a sub-caste of Telagas and notes that their name literally means 'a strong man'.[165]

In the present day, Ontaris are landholding agriculturists.[162] Historically, Ontaris were exclusively into military service.[166][63] Ontari literally means 'the lone one' which referred to their bravery in the context of historical warfare.[167][38][63] M. L. Kantha Rao calls Ontaris 'a great warrior class'.[63] They were a clan of warriors in medieval Andhra who engaged in hand-to-hand combat and wielded heavy weapons like maces.[21]

Srinatha mentions Ontarlu in his Palnati Veera Charitra and Bhimeswara Puranam, written in early 15th century.[21][63] Inscriptions from Vellaturu (dated to 1418 CE) and Tangeda in former Guntur district register gifts of lands to temples by Ontarlu.[63][168] Mallampalli Somasekhara Sarma notes that Ontari was the vernacular equivalent of the Sanskrit word Ekangavira — a hero who fights the combat alone.[21] Major towns and villages of medieval Andhra had gymnasiums for Ontarlu.[169] Analysing literary sources, Sarma notes that Ontaris, also known as Ekkatis, took part in hand-to-hand fight called Ekkati Kayyamu, the combat of singles. He adds:

Ontari forces served as the reserve army, and each fighter in this division was probably a great wrestler and also wielded heavy weapons like maces and the like. The ekkatis of the Reddi period gradually formed into a separate military caste or community, and are now popularly called Vantarlu. These now form one of the three sections of the Telaga community, the other two being the Telaga (proper), and the Kapu.[21][63]

As per K. S. Singh, "The title Ontari was awarded to them during the time of Sri Krishnadevaraya in the sixteenth century as a reward for their bravery in warfare. Prior to this, they were only known as Telaga."[162] They received rent-free lands for their services as warriors.[21][38][162] During the colonial era, Ontaris were recorded as people who valued honour over their lives.[38] They were known to carry daggers on their waists at all times. Ontari women previously observed gosha. Ontaris in Parlakimidi (Orissa), Bobbili, Pitapuram were referred to as Dora (lord or master).[38][170]

Relation to Balija

Balijas are closely related to Kapus and both are often enumerated together in government, sociological and psephological contexts.[50] Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions four sections in Telaga community — Telagas (or Naidus), Ontaris (or Doras), Balijas, and Kapus.[38] Anthropological Survey of India notes that Balijas of Rayalaseema are ethnically similar to Kapus of Coastal Andhra.[32]

Various sources note the similarities between the communities of Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari. These terms are often used as synonyms and are mentioned as sections of each other.[174] Kapu, Telaga, and Balija are considered as variant names of the same community in different regions.[32][1][175][173] Andhra Pradesh government's Kapu Welfare and Development Corporation refers to Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari communities collectively as Kapu.[49]

Status

Kapus are classified as a Forward caste both by the Central Government of India as well as the Andhra Pradesh Government. As of 2023, they do not avail any caste-based quotas or reservations.[8][176] They are a community of land-owning cultivators[17] and are one of the dominant castes of Andhra Pradesh.[28]

The four-tier varna system of ranking never really took hold in South Indian society. The two intermediate dvija varnas—the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas—did not exist.[184] In South India, on the other hand, there existed only three distinguishable classes—the Brahmins, the non-Brahmins and the Dalits.[186] Kapus are referred to as a non-Brahmin upper-caste.[195][196] They are considered to be a "Sat Shudra" (also known as "upper/high-caste/clean Shudra")[197] community in the traditional Hindu ritual ranking system.[200]

In a study on the history of Guntur district, Robert Eric Frykenberg categorized Kapus and Telagas among "elite agricultural (warrior) castes".[201] In 1982, Barbara D. Miller of Syracuse University remarked, "Generally the Telaga-Kapu rank fairly high in status".[202] K. C. Suri notes that non-Brahman caste groups like Kapus, whose main occupation has been cultivation, are the most important social groups in Andhra Pradesh in terms of numerical strength, land control, and access to political power.[31]: 10  K. Srinisavulu notes that Kapus are fairly prosperous and are dominant in the erstwhile districts of East Godavari and West Godavari.[91]

Politics

During the 1920s and 1930s, Kapus, along with other feudal landed castes, were major supporters of the Justice Party.[203][204][205] Prominent Kapu leader Kurma Venkatareddi Naidu[203] was a member of the Justice Party and formulated policies that promoted social equality, abolition of untouchability, and social reform.[206][84] In 1920, the first legislative council elections to Madras Presidency were held after the passing of the Government of India Act 1919. Naidu was one of the three ministers in the Cabinet holding the portfolios of Development and Industries.[207][84][208] In 1936, he was appointed as the Governor of Madras Presidency, one of the only two Indians in history to have held the post.[84] In 1937, he was elected as the Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency.[84] He was the only person to have held both the posts of Chief Minister and Governor of the Madras Presidency (which included all of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu along with parts of Kerala and Karnataka).[209]

After Indian independence, Andhra State was formed in 1953. Pasala Suryachandra Rao, a Kapu from West Godavari district was the first deputy speaker of Andhra State Assembly from 1953 to 1954.[210] Rokkam Lakshmi Narasimham Dora, a Telaga Kapu from Srikakulam district served as the second speaker of Andhra State Assembly from 1955 to 1956.[211][212] In the 1955 Andhra State legislature, there were 16 Kapu legislators, the third-highest among all castes.[93] In Pondicherry, Kamisetty Parasuram Naidu, a Kapu leader from Yanam[213] served as the first deputy speaker of Pondicherry Assembly from 1963–1964.[214][215] He also served as the speaker of Pondicherry Assembly from 1985–1989.[214]

In 2009 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections, Kapu community had 19 MLAs — the third-highest among unreserved communities. In the 2019 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections, 24 Kapus were elected as MLAs, next only to Reddys and higher than Kammas. Together, these three upper castes accounted for nearly two-thirds of unreserved seats in the Assembly.[199][216] In the past decade, there have been four Kapu Deputy Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh — Nimmakayala Chinarajappa (2014–2019),[217] Alla Nani (2019–2022), Kottu Satyanarayana (2022–2024),[218] and Pawan Kalyan (2024–present).[219]

Kapunadu movement

Kapunadu movement was formed in the early 1980s and under the leadership of Vangaveeti Mohana Ranga they demanded quotas for Kapu, Telaga, Balija, and Ontari communities.[220][20]: 48  However, the N. K. Muralidhar Rao commission in 1982 did not recommend quotas for Kapus and noted as follows:

"Kapus are land owners and enjoy social status in the villages. They are already politically conscious and socially forward. On the educational side also they are not backward as the students belonging to the Kapu Community are in considerable number in the educational institutions in the state. The literacy in this community is higher than the state average. There is a good representation from Kapu Community in the employment under the state government, semi-government and local bodies. The Commission thinks that it is not necessary to disturb this."[221]

In early 2016, the Kapus of the residual Andhra Pradesh state launched an agitation demanding quotas, leading to violent protests.[222][223] Due to the support provided by Kapus in the 2014 assembly elections which helped it come to power, the Telugu Desam Party-led state government allocated 5% quota for Kapus in educational institutions and government jobs in the state. However, this was opposed by the Central Government and was found to be legally untenable.[224] In July 2019, the subsequent YSR Congress government reversed the decision.[225] As of 2024, Kapus do not avail any quotas and are classified as a Forward caste.[176]

Kapu zamindaris

Andhra Vignanamu, Volume 3 (1939) mentions Eluru, Ganapavaram and Akividu in former West Godavari district as places ruled by Telagas. They were called Telaga-prabhuvula-seemalu (transl. Territories of Telaga Lords).[226]

In pre-independent India, many Kapu-Telaga zamindari families with extensive landholdings existed, especially in Godavari districts. Some of them were bestowed with Diwan Bahadur and Rao Bahadur titles.[227] One of the wealthiest zamindaris in former Krishna district was the Vallur Estate of Bommadevara family.[228][161][229][230] Further, Gopisetti Narayanaswami Naidu, a Telaga, was the receiver of Nidadavolu Estate.[231][232]

Some of the Kapu zamindaris (samsthanams) include:

Notable people

Note: The list only includes people from Kapu and sub-castes (Telaga, Ontari), not Balija, Turpu Kapu, and other castes.

Politics

Sir Kurma Venkata Reddi Naidu

Sports

C. K. Nayudu

Social Activists

Sciences

Film

Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu
Savitri

Arts

Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu

Literature

References

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d Reddi, Agarala Easwara; Ram, D. Sundar (1994). State Politics in India: Reflections on Andhra Pradesh. M. D. Publications. p. 339. ISBN 978-81-85880-51-8. The Kapus, concentrated in Guntur, Krishna, West and East Godavari districts are listed among the forward castes. In Rayalaseema districts they are known as Balijas.
  2. ^ Guhan, Sanjivi (2001). India's Development Experience: Selected Writings of S. Guhan. Oxford University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-19-565523-0. In Andhra Pradesh, the forward castes (mainly Brahmins, Kapu, and Kamma) ....
  3. ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe; Kumar, Sanjay (4 May 2012). Rise of the Plebeians?: The Changing Face of the Indian Legislative Assemblies. Routledge. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-136-51662-7. The Forward Castes comprise the Brahmin, Kapus, Kamma, Reddys, Komati, Kshatriya, Velama.
  4. ^ a b Census of India, 1971: Andhra Pradesh. Vol. 6. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 1976. p. 236. It is also seen that Brahmin, Vysya, Telaga, Kapu who are considered to be socially and economically forward castes ....
  5. ^ a b c Singh, K. S. (1992). People of India: Andhra Pradesh. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 851. ISBN 978-81-7671-006-0. The term Kapu is variously used in different regions of Andhra Pradesh. They are equated with Reddis in Rayalaseema districts (Thurston, 1909). In East Godavari, West Godavari, Krishna, and Guntur districts, the same term refers to a forward caste, often synonymously used with the Telaga and Ontari.
  6. ^ a b c d Bulletin. Madras Institute of Development Studies. 1990. p. 123. Taking Andhra Pradesh alone, all the populous land-owning castes such as Reddy, Kamma, Kapu, Telaga, Velama, Raju, etc. (which are among the forward sections), constitute definitely more than nine percent of the total population which is the proportion of the land-owning castes in the above extrapolation for northern India.
  7. ^ a b c d e Gudavarthy, Ajay (2014). Maoism, Democracy and Globalisation: Cross-currents in Indian Politics. SAGE Publishing India. p. 81. ISBN 978-9-35150-425-2.
  8. ^ a b [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
  9. ^ a b c Census of India, 1961. Vol. 2. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 1961. p. 8. The Kapus who are otherwise popularly known as Telagas in these parts primarily belong to a caste of cultivators and land owners. They are among the most respected of the non-Brahmins. It is said that in the past they were soldiers in the armies of the Hindu Sovereigns.
  10. ^ a b Gundemeda, Nagaraju (2 October 2014). Education and Hegemony: Social Construction of Knowledge in India in the Era of Globalisation. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 103, XV. ISBN 978-1-4438-6830-3. .... belongs to the Hindu upper (landed) caste Kapu, one of the dominant castes in coastal Andhra Pradesh.
  11. ^ a b Prasad, N Purendra (2015). "Agrarian Class and Caste Relations in 'United' Andhra Pradesh, 1956–2014". Economic and Political Weekly. 50 (16): 77–83. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 24482069.
  12. ^ a b Contributions to Indian Sociology. Vol. 24. Mouton. 1990. p. 37.
  13. ^ a b Man & Development. Vol. 13. Centre for Research in Rural and Industrial Development. 1991. p. 68.
  14. ^ Rao, Y. V. Krishna (1984). Peasant Farming and Growth of Capitalism in Indian Agriculture. Visalaandhra Publishing House. p. 280.
  15. ^ a b c Apparasu, Srinivasa Rao (30 January 2024). "Andhra Pradesh: Caste politics takes centre stage as assembly, LS polls approach". Hindustan Times. Retrieved 25 June 2024. Kapus are a community of land-owning cultivators and are one of the dominant castes of Andhra Pradesh, generally affiliated to like Balijas, Telagas and Ontaris.
  16. ^ Mukherjee, S.; Ramaswamy, S. (1996). Political Science Annual 1996. Deep & Deep Publications. p. 308. ISBN 978-81-7100-833-9.
  17. ^ a b [9][10][6][11][12][13][14][15][16][7]
  18. ^ a b c d [9][151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158]
  19. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 50, 59, 66.
  20. ^ a b c Parthasarathy, D. (1997). Collective Violence in a Provincial City. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-564139-4.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Sarma, Mallampalli Somasekhara (1946). History Of The Reddi Kingdoms. Andhra University. p. 241. Another important division of the infantry was ekkatlu, the plural form of the term ekkati, a contracted form of Ekkatidu. Ekkati, otherwise called Ontari, was, as his name indicates, brought into the field of battle almost at the end of the fight, when it was a losing game, and was ordered to take part in hand to hand fight. Ekkati kayyamu, the combat of singles, began only after every prospect of victory was lost. The ekkati forces served probably as the reserve army, and each fighter in this division was probably a great wrestler and wielded also heavy weapons like maces and the like. There were ekkatis in every important town and village in the kingdom. The ekkatis of Velanturu (Vellaturu), Tangeda and Polepalli are mentioned in the records of the Reddi period. From the way in which these ekkatis made gifts to local gods, we come to know that they were remunerated for their services by grants of land. All these sections of infantry are mentioned in the Palnativiracaritra, produced in this period. In this work ekkatlu are referred to as Ontarlu (Selagola prajalanu heccu vantarla; Vantari is the corrupt form of Ontari). Ekkati and its synonym Ontari seem to have been the vernacular equivalents of the Sanskrit word Ekangavira, the hero who fights the combat singly. These ekkatis of the Reddi period gradually formed into a separate military caste or community, and are now popularly called Vantarlu. These now form one of the three sections of the Telaga community, the other two being the Telaga (proper), and the Kapu.
  22. ^ [19][20]: 46 [21]
  23. ^ a b The Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics. Vol. 55. Indian Society of Agricultural Economics. 2000. p. 707. In Andhra Pradesh, at the state level, one might mention a few castes such as Reddy, Velama, Kamma, Raju, Kapu / Telaga / Balija castes as the dominant (cultivator) castes.
  24. ^ Shastri, Sandeep; Kumar, Ashutosh; Sisodia, Yatindra Singh (22 November 2021). Electoral Dynamics in the States of India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-47697-2. ..... and all of them were contested against the dominant caste candidates like Reddy, Kamma, Kapu, etc.
  25. ^ Kuczyński, Janusz (1988). Perspectives on Contemporary Youth. United Nations University. p. 253. ISBN 978-92-808-0643-4.
  26. ^ Gundimeda, Sambaiah (2009). "Dalits, Praja Rajyam Party and Caste Politics in Andhra Pradesh". Economic and Political Weekly. 44 (21): 50–58. ISSN 0012-9976. JSTOR 40279035.
  27. ^ South Asian Studies. Department of Political Science, University of Rajasthan. 2001. pp. 249, 252, 255. ISBN 978-81-7304-377-2.
  28. ^ a b [10][23][24][15][11][25][12][13][26][7][27]
  29. ^ a b A. Vijaya Kumari; Sepuri Bhaskar (1998). Social Change Among Balijas: Majority Community of Andhra Pradesh. M.D. Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-7533-072-6.
  30. ^ Bhargav, Nimmagadda (28 February 2023). Stringers and the Journalistic Field: Marginalities and Precarious News Labour in Small-Town India. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-84035-3. The Telugu word kapu means protector or cultivator. They use the suffix – Naidu – in the East and West Godavari, Krishna and Guntur.
  31. ^ a b c K. C. Suri (September 2002). "Democratic Process and Electoral Politics in Andhra Pradesh, India" (PDF). Overseas Development Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2021.
  32. ^ a b c d The Journal of the Anthropological Survey of India. Vol. 39. Anthropological Survey of India. 1990. p. 70. The group is also known as Kapu, Naidu, Telaga in coastal districts of the state and is ethnically similar to Balija Naidus of Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh.
  33. ^ Rao, M. Prasada (2006). Rural Non-farm Growth: Sign of Farm Success Or Failure?. Serials Publications. p. 215. ISBN 978-81-8387-009-2.
  34. ^ Indian Antiquary. Vol. 3–4. Popular Prakashan. 1971. p. 2.
  35. ^ Singh, K. S. (2004). People of India: Maharashtra (3 pts.). Anthropological Survey of India. p. 74. ISBN 978-81-7991-100-6.
  36. ^ Yagati, Chinna Rao (2003). Dalits Struggle for Identity: Andhra and Hyderabad 1900-1950. Kanishka Publishers Distributors. pp. 38, 53. ISBN 978-81-7391-573-4.
  37. ^ [30][31]: 11 [32][33][34][35][36]
  38. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Prasada Bhoopaludu (1939). Andhra Vignanamu (in Telugu). Vol. 3. The Razan Electric Press. pp. 1381–1383.
  39. ^ a b c [133][5][134][122][123][135][136][47]
  40. ^ a b Lakshmanna, Chintamani (1973), Caste Dynamics in Village India, Nachiketa Publications, p. 28, ... Velanadu (Krishna and Penna Doab) was ruled by Velanati Chodas and other areas were ruled by Telugu Chodas. In course of time, these were called Telagas, one of the important non-Brahman castes.
  41. ^ a b ఏటుకూరు బలరామమూర్తి (1953). ఆంధ్రుల సంక్షిప్త చరిత్ర [A Brief History of the Andhras] (in Telugu). Visalaandhra Publishing House. (p. 97) తాము చతుర్ధ వంశస్టులమని, దుర్జయ కులోద్భవులమని వెలనాటి చోడులు చెప్పుకున్నారు. మిగతా తెలుగు చోడులు తాము సూర్యవంశజులమని, కరికాల చోళుని వంశస్థులమని చెప్పుక���న్నారు. కాని వాస్తవానికి అందరూ ఒకే కుదురునుండి ప్రారంభమైన చతుర్ధ వంశస్థులే తప్ప వేరు కారు. వీరందరికీ కాలక్రమేణా తెలగాలు లేక కాపులు అను పేరు స్థిరమైంది. (p. 114) కోట బేతరాజు మొదలైనవారు తెలుగుచోడులు. వీరు క్రమంగా తెలగాలుగా మారారు.
  42. ^ లింగం వీరభద్రయ్య చౌదరి (1974). స్వవిషయం రెండవ భాగం (in Telugu). Triveni Publishers. pp. 469, 649–650.
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  44. ^ Naidu, D. Suran (July 1980). "Andhra Pradesh: A Repeat Performance of the 1977 Election?". In Singh, Harnam (ed.). The Indian Political Science Review. Vol. XIV. Indian Political Science Review. pp. 250–251.
  45. ^ Ambagudia, Jagannath; Xaxa, Virginius (1 December 2020). Handbook of Tribal Politics in India. SAGE Publishing India. p. 177. ISBN 978-93-5388-460-4.
  46. ^ "Nandyal bypoll: In Caste Matrix, Muslims, Vysyas Hold The Key". The Times of India. 20 August 2017. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 26 May 2023. .... as there are good number of Balija voters in the constituency. The community is the equivalent of the Kapu community in the Rayalaseema region.
  47. ^ a b Singh, K. S. (1992). People of India: Andhra Pradesh. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1817. ISBN 978-81-7671-006-0. The Telaga are a Telugu speaking dominant cultivator community, concentrated in all the coastal towns and hinterlands of East and West Godavari, Krishna, Guntur and Nellore districts of Coastal Andhra and in all the ..... Today we find the Kapu, Ontari and Balija of the state often call themselves Telaga, and the Telaga in some parts also use Kapu as synonym.
  48. ^ "₹490.86 crore credited into accounts of Kapu Nestham beneficiaries". The Hindu. 22 July 2021. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
  49. ^ a b "'State committed to welfare of Kapus, Balijas'". The Hindu. 17 May 2016. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 23 May 2023.
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  51. ^ a b c d e Kantha Rao 1999, p. 66–67, Chapter 2
    The term 'Kapu' which means a 'protector' is very broad in sense, and the Kapus consider themselves as those who look after or protect the soil. They are different from the Kammas and Reddis who are also agricultural castes though it has been pointed out that the term 'Kapu' can be broadly used for all agriculturists. It is loosely applied to all landed castes in the state in the context of the Jajmani system of inter-caste relations. However, the Kapus, are a separate caste in the Coastal districts of Guntur, Krishna, Prakasam, East and West Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam.
  52. ^ Talbot 2001, p. 74.
  53. ^ Talbot 2001, pp. 192, 206.
  54. ^ a b Talbot 2001, p. 206.
  55. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, p. 9, Chapter 5.
  56. ^ Talbot 2001, p. 86.
  57. ^ Kunduri Iswara Dutt (1967). Inscriptional Glossary Of Andhra Pradesh. Andhra Pradesh Sahitya Akademi. p. 131.
  58. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 50, Chapter 2.
  59. ^ a b Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 9, 16, Chapter 5.
  60. ^ Dr. E. Venkatesu (30 June 2017). "Constitution, Reservation Policy and Dominant Castes Demand for Other Backward Classes Status in India" (PDF). International Public Policy Association (IPPA). p. 18.
  61. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 58, Chapter 2.
  62. ^ a b Satish Kumar 2014, p. 16, Chapter 5.
  63. ^ a b c d e f g Kantha Rao 1999, pp. 80–81, Chapter 2.
  64. ^ R. Narasimha Rao (1967). Corporate Life in Medieval Andhradesa. University Grants Commission. p. 108.
  65. ^ P. S. Kanaka Durga (1989). Role of Nayakas in Medieval Andhra 1000-1259. AP History Congress. p. 44.
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  67. ^ Holck, Frederick H. (1974). Death and Eastern Thought: Understanding Death in Eastern Religions and Philosophies. Abingdon Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-687-10341-6.
  68. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 78.
  69. ^ Katten, Michael (1997). Category Creation and the Colonial Setting: Identity Formation in Nineteenth Century Telugu-speaking India. University of California, Berkeley. p. 144.
  70. ^ a b "The warrior factory". The Week. 25 September 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2023. Most of them who opt for military service from this village belong to the Kapu community ..... Though the Kapu community is now chiefly agrarian, there was a time when they were soldiers. They gained reputation when they took part in the famous Battle of Bobbili on January 23, 1757.
  71. ^ Sarma, Mallampalli Somasekhara, ed. (1956). Bobbili Yuddhakatha (in Telugu). Government Oriental Manuscripts Library.
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  73. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, pp. 59, 77, Chapter 2.
  74. ^ Still, Clarinda (6 July 2017). Dalit Women: Honour and Patriarchy in South India. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-58818-8.
  75. ^ Herrenschmidt, Olivier (1982). "Quelles Fêtes pour quelles castes?". L'Homme (in French). 22 (3): 33. doi:10.3406/hom.1982.368302. ISSN 0439-4216. JSTOR 25131883.
  76. ^ Census of India, 1961. Part 6. Vol. 2. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 29 November 1961. p. 18.
  77. ^ Subrahmanyam, Y. Subhashini (1975). Social Change in Village India: An Andhra Case Study. Prithvi Raj Publishers. p. 74.
  78. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 10, 14, Chapter 5.
  79. ^ a b Kantha Rao 1999, p. 93, Chapter 3.
  80. ^ V. Rama Krishna (1983), Social Reform in Andhra, 1848-1919, Vikas Publishing House. p. 57–58.
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  82. ^ Subbamma, Mallādi (1994). Women's Movement and Associations: Regional Perspective, 1860-1993. Booklinks. p. 14. ISBN 978-81-85194-30-1.
  83. ^ Itihas (1984) Vol 12. Government of Andhra Pradesh. p. 24
  84. ^ a b c d e Randor Guy (1–15 July 2009). "Justice Party policies owed much to him". Madras Musings. Vol. XIX. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
  85. ^ "భారతీయ కవితా కోకిల (ప్రపంచ తెలుగు మహాసభలు)". Andhra Bhoomi (in Telugu). 15 December 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
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  87. ^ "Kanneganti Hanumanthu". Ministry of Culture, Government of India. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  88. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 107, 144–147, Chapter 3.
  89. ^ M. Venkatarangaiya (ed.) (1974). The Freedom Struggle in Andhra Pradesh (Andhra). Vol. IV. pp. 591–592.
  90. ^ Andhra Patrika. 6 May 1930.
  91. ^ a b Srinivasulu, K. (September 2002). Caste & Class Articulation of Andhra Pradesh (PDF). London: Overseas Development Institute. pp. 3, 4. ISBN 0-85003-612-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  92. ^ a b Singh, K. S. (1992). People of India: Andhra Pradesh. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 1525. ISBN 978-81-7671-006-0. The Reddi, are also known as Kapu (different from the Kapu community of coastal Andhra).
  93. ^ a b Harrison, Selig S. (June 1956), "Caste and the Andhra Communists", The American Political Science Review, 50 (2): 378–404, doi:10.2307/1951675, JSTOR 1951675, S2CID 147317455
  94. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 15–17, Chapter 5.
  95. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 16–17, Chapter 5.
  96. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 17, 20–21, Chapter 5.
  97. ^ Satish Kumar 2014, p. 115–123.
  98. ^ a b c d Satish Kumar 2014, pp. 17–18, Chapter 5.
  99. ^ "India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS-II), 2011-12". ICPSR, University of Michigan. Retrieved 4 June 2023.
  100. ^ a b c Srinivas, S.V.. (2010). Making of a Peasant Industry: Telugu Cinema in the 1930s–1950s. Bioscope: South Asian Screen Studies. p. 173. 10.1177/097492761000100207.
  101. ^ a b c d e f g h "Election promises haunt Chandrababu Naidu". Deccan Chronicle. 2 February 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  102. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, Chapter 6.
  103. ^ a b c d "Kapu community says no to 'Chandranna' samkshema bhavan". The Times of India. 22 May 2016. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  104. ^ a b Janyala, Sreenivas (6 May 2014). "The Kapus, 27% and key to Seemandhra". The Indian Express. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  105. ^ More, J. B. Prashant (2007). The Telugus of Yanam and Masulipatnam: From French Rule to Integration with India.
  106. ^ "Once a Cong bastion in Puducherry, Yanam to witness a close contest". Hindustan Times. 18 March 2021. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  107. ^ S. N. C. N. Acharyulu (11 November 2018). "Settlers' role decisive in 25 Telangana Assembly seats". Deccan Chronicle. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  108. ^ "Which way will Andhra settlers in Telangana swing as TRS tries to woo them?". The News Minute. 9 November 2018. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  109. ^ a b "Ambati Rayudu keeps political parties in Telugu states guessing". The Economic Times. 6 June 2023. ISSN 0013-0389. Retrieved 18 June 2023. The constituency also has a good number of voters from Kapu community, to which Rayudu belongs.
  110. ^ Senapati, Nilamani; Sahu, Nabin Kumar (1966). Orissa District Gazetteers: Ganjam. Superintendent, Orissa Government Press. p. 247.
  111. ^ Singh, K. S. (1992). People of India: Andhra Pradesh. Anthropological Survey of India. p. 821. ISBN 978-81-7671-006-0.
  112. ^ a b Oonk, Gijsbert (2007). Global Indian Diasporas: Exploring Trajectories of Migration and Theory. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 95, 111. ISBN 978-90-5356-035-8.
  113. ^ a b Mandali Buddha Prasad. "మారిషస్‌లో తెలుగు తేజం" (in Telugu). విదేశాంధ్ర సేవాకేంద్ర. p. 66.
  114. ^ "South Indian Immigrants from India" (PDF). Sangam Fiji. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
  115. ^ Chakravorty, Sanjoy; Kapur, Devesh; Singh, Nirvikar (2017). The Other One Percent: Indians in America. Oxford University Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-19-064874-9. High castes (like Brahmins) and dominant castes (like Patels in Gujarat and Kapu and Kamma in Andhra Pradesh) constitute over 90 percent of Indians in America.
  116. ^ జాగరగల్లు సుబ్బరాయుడు (1941). త్రిలిఙ్గ రజతోత్సవము (శ్రీ వావిళ్ల వేంకటేశ్వరశాస్త్రులు గారి సమ్మాన సంపుటము) (in Telugu). Vavilla Ramaswamy Sastrulu and Sons. p. 176. గోదావరి కృష్ణా జిల్లాలలో రెడ్లకు, కాపులకు భేదమున్నది. కాపులను 'తెలగాలు' 'నాయుళ్లు' అని పిలుచుచుందురు. కాని కడప కర్నూలు ప్రాంతములలో 'రెడ్ల'న్నను 'కాపు'లన్నను ఒక్కకులమునకే వాడుచున్నారు. పర్యాయపదములుగా నుపయోగించుచున్నారు.
  117. ^ J. Eswara Prasad. "Govt. Of Andhra Pradesh and ... vs R. K. Ragala and another on 31 January, 1994". Andhra Pradesh High Court.
  118. ^ Economic and Political Weekly. Sameeksha Trust. 1989. p. 66.
  119. ^ Kantha Rao 1999, p. 43, Chapter 2.
  120. ^ Reddy, G. Samba Siva (2011). "Dethroning Dominance: Caste Associations in Colonial Andhra, 1901-1947". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 72: 771. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44146769. Telagas termed themselves as Kapus and by profession were agriculturists. The first Telaga Mahajana Sabha of the region met at Railway Kodur in Kadapa district in September 1920. The later Telaga Conferences were held mostly in the Coastal Andhra areas than in the Rayalaseema region since the population of Telagas was more in the former region than in the latter. But some of the leaders of the region participated in these conferences as they had good rapport, with the prominent Coastal Andhra leaders like Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu, who seldom visited the region.
  121. ^ Proceedings - Indian History Congress. Vol. 65. Indian History Congress. 2006. p. 449.
  122. ^ a b Kantha Rao 1999, p. 67, Chapter 2
    The Kapus are found all over Andhra Pradesh and they are sub-divided into the Turpu Kapus and Telagas. The Kapus of the East and West Godavari call themselves Telagas or Pedda (Big) Kapus and claim to be superior to the Turpu (East) Kapus. The Turpu Kapus are those belonging to the districts of Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam.
  123. ^ a b Subrahmanyam, Y. Subhashini (1975). Social Change in Village India: An Andhra Case Study. Prithvi Raj Publishers. pp. 74, 75. The Kapu form the bulk of the population and are agriculturists and horticulturists. The Kapus of the East Godavari call themselves Telaga or Pedda (Big) Kapus.
  124. ^ Lakshmanna, Chintamani (1973). Caste Dynamics in Village India. Nachiketa Publications. pp. 26, 137.
  125. ^ Shashi, Shyam Singh (1994). Encyclopaedia of Indian Tribes: Andhra Pradesh. Anmol Publications. pp. 196. 195. ISBN 978-81-7041-836-8. But Reddis, Kammas, and Telaga Naidu are equal in social rank. They are originally agricultural castes.
  126. ^ Simhadri, Y. C. (1979). The Ex-criminal Tribes of India. National.
  127. ^ Rao, M. Prasada (2006). Rural Non-farm Growth: Sign of Farm Success Or Failure?. Serials Publications. p. 215. ISBN 978-81-8387-009-2.
  128. ^ Brown, Charles Philip (1852). A Dictionary, Telugu and English: Explaining the Colloquial Style Used in Business and the Poetical Dialect, with Explanations in English and in Telugu (1st ed.). Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 442.
  129. ^ Brown, Charles Philip (1852). A Dictionary, Telugu and English: Explaining the Colloquial Style Used in Business and the Poetical Dialect, with Explanations in English and in Telugu (1st ed.). Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 215.
  130. ^ Brown, Charles Philip (1903). "A Telugu-English Dictionary" (2nd ed.). Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. p. 271 – via Digital South Asia Library.
  131. ^ Brown, William (1953). తెనుగు-ఇంగ్లీష్ నిఘంటువు (2nd ed.). Cultural Books Limited. p. 264.
  132. ^ Brown, William (1818). A Vocabulary of Gentoo and English. Commercial Press, Madras. pp. 282–283.
  133. ^ Murty, K. Ramachandra (2001). Parties, Elections, and Mobilisation. Anmol Publications. p. 21. ISBN 978-81-261-0979-1. The Kapus of Godavari Districts are quite well off and politically dynamic. They proudly declare themselves as Telagas.
  134. ^ Grover, Verinder; Arora, Ranjana (1996). Encyclopaedia of India and Her States: Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Deep & Deep. p. 129. ISBN 978-81-7100-730-1. The Kapus constitute a separate caste in the Coastal districts of West Godavari, Visakhapatnam, Vijayanagaram and Srikakulam. The Kapus of Coastal regions are politically dynamic. They proudly declare themselves as Telagas.
  135. ^ Reddy, G. Samba Siva (2011). "Dethroning Dominance: Caste Associations in Colonial Andhra, 1901-1947". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 72: 771. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44146769. Telagas termed themselves as Kapus and by profession were agriculturists. The first Telaga Mahajana Sabha of the region met at Railway Kodur in Kadapa district in September 1920. The later Telaga Conferences were held mostly in the Coastal Andhra areas than in the Rayalaseema region since the population of Telagas was more in the former region than in the latter. But some of the leaders of the region participated in these conferences as they had good rapport, with the prominent Coastal Andhra leaders like Kurma Venkata Reddy Naidu, who seldom visited the region.
  136. ^ Satyanarayana, A. (2005). Dalits and Upper Castes: Essays in Social History. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 152. ISBN 978-81-7391-703-5.
  137. ^ Murty, K. Ramachandra (2001), Parties Elections And Mobilisation, Anmol Publications, p. 158, ISBN 978-81-261-0979-1, Srikakulam district: ... The Brahmins, Rajus (Kshatriya), Komati, and Telaga communities are considered to be forward communities and these castes constitute around 8 percent of the district.
  138. ^ Bernstorff, Dagmar (1973). "Eclipse of "Reddy-Raj"? The Attempted Restructuring of the Congress Party Leadership in Andhra Pradesh". Asian Survey. 13 (10): 970. doi:10.2307/2643005. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2643005. Other forward communities are Brahmins, Vaishyas, Kshatriyas, Telagas, Khaists.
  139. ^ Hauck, Gerhard (1973). "Gewaltlosigkeit und Gleichheit als Ideologie: Eine Studie über den Gandhiismus in Indien" [Nonviolence and Equality as Ideology: A Study of Gandhiism in India]. Soziale Welt (in German). 24 (1): 102. ISSN 0038-6073. JSTOR 40877086.
  140. ^ Naidu, D. Suran (1991). The Congress Party in Transition: A Study in Srikakulam District of Andhra Pradesh. National Book Organisation. p. 27. ISBN 978-81-85135-64-9. The Brahmin, Raju (Kshatriya), Komati (Vaisya) and Telaga castes are considered 'forward communities' in the district.
  141. ^ Raju, Rapaka Satya (1989). Urban Unorganised Sector in India. Mittal Publications. p. 158. Among the forward communities, Vysya, Telaga and Brahmin communities had higher representation in that order.
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  143. ^ Narayan-Parker, Deepa; Petesch, Patti L. (1 January 2002). From Many Lands. World Bank Publications. p. 152. ISBN 978-0-8213-5049-2. About half the 153 households in the village are from the dominant Telaga caste of landed farmers ....
  144. ^ Arnold, David (1986). Police Power and Colonial Rule, Madras, 1859-1947. Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-561893-8.
  145. ^ K. Veeram Reddy (1987). Land Reforms and the Emergence of New Agrarian Structure in Andhra Pradesh: A Case Study of Chittoor District. p. 63. It was because of the caste composition of land ownership, for most of the agricultural land is owned by the dominant castes - Kamma, Reddy, Velama, Telaga, and Kshatriya communities.
  146. ^ H. Blackburn, Stuart; A. K. Ramanujan, eds. (1986). Another Harmony: New Essays on the Folklore of India. University of California Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-520-05498-1. Now let us look at the various castes associated with our epics. Those associated with the Palnati Katha are Telaga, Velamas, and Kammas—all traditionally landowning castes.
  147. ^ Rao, Velcheru Narayana (1 June 2017). Text and Tradition in South India. State University of New York Press. p. 310. ISBN 978-1-4384-6777-1.
  148. ^ Jackson-Laufer, Guida Myrl (1994). Encyclopedia of Traditional Epics. ABC-CLIO. p. 463. ISBN 978-0-87436-724-9.
  149. ^ Oddie, Geoffrey A. (1977). Religion in South Asia: Religious Conversion and Revival Movements in South Asia in Medieval and Modern Times. Curzon Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-7007-0103-2.
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  151. ^ Baines, Athelstane (22 March 2021). Ethnography (Castes and Tribes): With a List of the More Important Works on Indian Ethnography by W. Siegling. De Gruyter. p. 54. ISBN 978-3-11-238388-9. The Telaga were once a military caste, and were till recently recruited for the native regiments of the British army, but now they are cultivators of a moderately high position, and only differ from their neighbours in being somewhat more fully Brahmanised.
  152. ^ Brand, Coenraad M. (1973). State and Society: A Reader in Comparative Political Sociology. University of California Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-520-02490-8. ... local warrior castes such as Rajus, Kammas, Velamas, Kapus, and Telagas dominated military occupations.
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Bibliography

Further reading

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