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Gender Equality in South Africa

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Contributing to the "Reproductive health and rights" section of the "Women in South African" Wikipedia page

Things to consider as I do research:

  • Contraception in South Africa
  • "Sexual Health" vs. "Reproductive Health"
  • Impact of Sexually Transmitted Disease and HIV/AIDS

Reproductive health and rights (FINAL DRAFT)

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Social constructions and expectations play an important role in the South African women’s sexual activity, sexual health and her vulnerability to STI exposure.[1]

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are of major public health concern, especially in developing countries where the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are high[2]. HIV/AIDS in South Africa is a very serious problem. The country has the fourth global rate of infection: in 2016, 18.90% of adults 15-49 years old were living with HIV/AIDS.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). Only Swaziland, Lesotho and Botswana have a higher rate.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). Women are much more likely to be infected.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). Among women, it has been found that it is older South African women who are married or cohabiting with a partner who are of the highest risk group for HIV exposure.[1] A study has concluded that this is a result of an inequitable power of balance between men and women which leaves women, who have less power in the relationship, unable to request nor negotiate condom use with their partners.[1]

In an article from the World Health Organization experts looked at data to present estimates of the prevalence, on any given day, of STIs among women in rural South Africa and the proportion who are asymptomatic, symptomatic but not seeking care, and symptomatic and seeking care.[2] The study found that the majority of women with STIs in South Africa remained untreated because either women were did not present obvious symptoms or, even when they did, the symptoms were not recognized nor acted upon.[2] The study concluded that improved case management alone is "therefore unlikely to have a major public health impact. Improving partner treatment and women's awareness of symptoms is essential, while the potential of mass STI treatment needs to be explored".[2]


Data has shown a correlation between the increase in sex education and the decrease of new cases of HIV infections among young women in South Africa, with education on safe sex practices having substantially helped to curb the spread of STI's in general[3].

A study published in the American Journal of Public Health concluded that safe sex education prior to young people’s engagement in sexual activity – their “sexual debut” – was a major indicator of whether young people engaged in condom use.[4]

Women’s vaginal practices, which include the cleansing, treatment of infections, pampering, and use of beauty products, affects their sexual and reproductive health and susceptibility to STI.[5] A large percentage of women in South Africa engage in intra-vaginal product use, i.e. douching, which increases their chances for HIV infection.[5]

Maternal mortality is one of the lowest in Africa, although still high by global standards.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page).However, in South Africa, there are conflicting reports on the prevalence of maternal and neonatal mortality, derived from both direct and indirect estimation techniques.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page).

South Africa's Constitution recognizes and protects the rights of all citizens to have access to safe, effective, appropriate and affordable reproductive education , contraception and health services.[6] However, there are contradictory laws in place in regards to women’s ability to engage in sexual practices and receive sexual healthcare services.[7] For example, the age of consent in South Africa for women is 16, with the law requiring mandatory reporting of youths engaged in underage sex.[7] However, girls may legally request birth control from medical centers at age 12.[7] Due to the contradictory and confusing nature of such legislation the sexual health services and education given to young women in South Africa is limited by the health care practitioners understanding of the laws and their individual judgments of how to proceed.[7]

Contraceptive use amount young South Africans aged 15 to 24 is low and consequently the rate of unwanted pregnancies reported among young women are high.[8] A study of contraceptive use and pregnancy among South African women found that 65% of pregnancies in this age group were premarital and unplanned.[9] And a 1988 South Africa Demographic and Health Survey found that 35% of all teenagers had either been pregnant or had given birth by the age of 19.[10]

Types of contraceptives used by South African women are racially stratified with South African women of color predominantly utilizing contraceptive injections.[11]

South Africa is also one of the few countries in Africa to have a liberal abortion law: under the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1996, abortion is allowed on request during the first trimester of pregnancy, and in special circumstances at later stages.Cite error: The opening <ref> tag is malformed or has a bad name (see the help page). However, this does not mean that it is easy to get an abortion in South Africa, as not all health care facilities are equally nor adequately equipped to meet the demands for abortion services.[12] As of January 2013 it has been said that it is often cheaper and quicker to get an illegal abortion than to navigate official channels to get a legal abortion.[12]

Social stigmas surrounding abortion, contraception use, and sexual activity among young women and teens are still strong and limit young South African women's ability to access and utilize reproductive health services that are guaranteed to them by their government. [12]This issue is compounded by the fact that while women have the right to free abortions the government only covers the cost of the abortion procedures, but not the cost of maintaining a dedicated staff or facilities out of which abortions can be performed. [12]

  1. ^ a b c Madiba, Sphiwe, and Nomsa Ngwenya. “Cultural Practices, Gender Inequality and Inconsistent Condom Use Increase Vulnerability to HIV Infection: Narratives from Married and Cohabiting Women in Rural Communities in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.” Global Health Action 10 (January 3, 2017): N.PAG. doi:10.1080/16549716.2017.1341597.
  2. ^ a b c d Wilkinson, D., Karim, S. S. A., Harrison, A., Lurie, M., & al, e. (1999). Unrecognized sexually transmitted infections in rural south african women: A hidden epidemic. World Health Organization.Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 77(1), 22-8. Retrieved from http://csulb.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/229648624?accountid=10351
  3. ^ Madiba, Sphiwe, and Nomsa Ngwenya. “Cultural Practices, Gender Inequality and Inconsistent Condom Use Increase Vulnerability to HIV Infection: Narratives from Married and Cohabiting Women in Rural Communities in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.” Global Health Action 10 (January 3, 2017): N.PAG. doi:10.1080/16549716.2017.1341597.
  4. ^ Hendriksen, E. S., Pettifor, A., Lee, S., Coates, T. J., & Rees, H. V. (2007). Predictors of condom use among young adults in South Africa: The reproductive health and HIV research unit national youth survey. American Journal of Public Health, 97(7), 1241-1248. Retrieved from http://csulb.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.proquest.com/docview/70694819?accountid=10351
  5. ^ a b Martin Hilber, Adriane; Hull, Terence H.; Preston-Whyte, Eleanor; Bagnol, Brigitte; Smit, Jenni; Wacharasin, Chintana; Widyantoro, Ninuk (2010-02). "A cross cultural study of vaginal practices and sexuality: Implications for sexual health". Social Science & Medicine. 70 (3): 392–400. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.10.023. ISSN 0277-9536. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1996 [No. 92 of 1996] - G 17602". www.saflii.org. Retrieved 2018-12-11.
  7. ^ a b c d Müller, Alexandra; Röhrs, Stefanie; Hoffman-Wanderer, Yonina; Moult, Kelley (2016-01). ""You have to make a judgment call". – Morals, judgments and the provision of quality sexual and reproductive health services for adolescents in South Africa". Social Science & Medicine. 148: 71–78. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.048. ISSN 0277-9536. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Mchunu, G; Peltzer, K; Tutshana, B; Seutlwadi, L (2013-02-01). "Adolescent pregnancy and associated factors in South African youth". African Health Sciences. 12 (4). doi:10.4314/ahs.v12i4.5. ISSN 1680-6905.
  9. ^ Tutshana, Bomkazi O.; Mchunu, Gugu; Peltzer, Karl; Seutlwadi, Lebogang (2012-03-29). "Contraceptive use and associated factors among South African youth (18 - 24 years): A population-based survey". South African Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 18 (2): 43–47. ISSN 2305-8862.
  10. ^ Division, United Nations. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population (2009). Completing the fertility transition. United Nations. ISBN 9789211513707. OCLC 756724926.
  11. ^ "SARPN - South Africa". sarpn.org. Retrieved 2018-12-17.
  12. ^ a b c d Moore, J., & Ellis, E. (January 2013). "South Africa's Abortion Crisis". The Nation. 269(3): 20–23.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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