New Zealand

New Zealand Aotearoa  (Māori)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  "God Defend New Zealand" "God Save the Queen"1
The hemisphere centred on New Zealand
Capital	Wellington
Largest city	Auckland2
Official languages	English (98%)3 Māori (4.2%)3 NZ Sign Language (0.6%)3
Ethnic groups	78% European/Other4 14.6% Māori4 9.2% Asian4 6.9% Pacific peoples4
Demonym(s)	New Zealander, Kiwi (colloquial)
Government	Parliamentary democracy and Constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	HM Queen Elizabeth II
• Governor-General	Sir Anand Satyanand
• Prime Minister	John Key
• Speaker	Dr Lockwood Smith
• Chief Justice	Dame Sian Elias
Independence  from the United Kingdom
• 1st Parliament	25 May 18545
• Dominion	26 September 19075
• Statute of Westminster	11 December 1931 (adopted 25 November 1947)
• Constitution Act 1986	13 December 1986
Area
• Total	268,021 km2 (103,483 sq mi) (74th)
• Water (%)	2.1
Population
• June 2010 estimate	4,367,700[1] (123rd)
• 2006 census	4,027,9476
• Density	16.1/km2 (41.7/sq mi) (201st)
GDP (PPP)	2010 estimate
• Total	$115.412 billion[2]
• Per capita	$28,722[2]
GDP (nominal)	2010 estimate
• Total	$135.723 billion[2]
• Per capita	$31,067[2]
Gini (1997)	36.2 medium inequality
HDI (2010)	0.907[3] Error: Invalid HDI value (3rd)
Currency	New Zealand dollar (NZD)
Time zone	UTC+12 (NZST7)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+13 (NZDT)
	(Sep to Apr)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Drives on	left
Calling code	+64
ISO 3166 code	NZ
Internet TLD	.nz8
1 "God Save the Queen" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and vice-regal occasions.[4][5] 2 Auckland is the largest urban area; Auckland City is the largest incorporated city. 3 Percentages add to more than 100% because some people speak more than one language. They exclude unusable responses and those who spoke no language (e.g. too young to talk).[6] 4 Percentages add to more than 100% because some people identify with more than one ethnic group.[7] 5 There is a multitude of dates that could be considered to mark independence (see Independence of New Zealand). 6 Number of people who usually live in New Zealand.[8] 7 The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand. 8 The territories of Niue, the Cook Islands and Tokelau have their own cctlds, .nu, .ck and .tk respectively.

New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island), and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori language name for New Zealand is Aotearoa, commonly translated as land of the long white cloud. The Realm of New Zealand also includes the Cook Islands and Niue (self-governing but in free association); Tokelau; and the Ross Dependency (New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica).

New Zealand is notable for its geographic isolation; it is situated about 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) southeast of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and its closest neighbours to the north are New Caledonia, Fiji and Tonga. During its long isolation New Zealand developed a distinctive fauna dominated by birds, a number of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and the mammals they introduced.

The majority of New Zealand's population is of European descent; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority. Asians and non-Māori Polynesians are also significant minority groups, especially in urban areas. The most commonly spoken language is English.

New Zealand is a developed country that ranks highly in international comparisons on many topics, including lack of corruption, high educational attainment and economic freedom. Its cities also consistently rank among the world's most liveable.

Elizabeth II, as the Queen of New Zealand, is the country's head of state and is represented by a Governor-General, and executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet of New Zealand.

It is unknown whether New Zealand had a Māori name before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa (which literally translates as "land of the long white cloud")^[9] originally just referring to the North Island. The use of the term to describe the whole country only occurred post-colonially and it is now commonly used in New Zealand English.^[10] Abel Tasman sighted the islands in 1642 and named them Staten Landt, assuming they were connected to land off the southern tip of South America.^[11] In 1645 Dutch cartographers renamed the islands Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland.^[12][13] British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand.^{[n 1]}

Maori traditionally had several names for the two main islands; including Te Ika a Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Wai Pounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.^[14] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).^[15] In 1830 maps began using North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.^[16] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the Islands were never officially named and is seeking to formalise North Island and South Island.^[17] The board is also looking for alternative Māori names,^[18] with Te Ika-a-Māui and Te Wai Pounamu the most likely choices according to the chairman of the Māori Language Commission.^[19]

New Zealand, one of the last uninhabited major landmasses, was settled when Eastern Polynesians arrived by canoes.^[20] Radiocarbon dating of the oldest known archaeological site, evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest the islands were permanently settled between 1250–1300 AD.^[21] Remains of Polynesian Rats, which arrived with the settlers, were initially dated as early as 200 BC, suggesting earlier arrivals who subsequently left or died out.^[22] Later dating of rat bones revealed dates consistent with 12th century settlement and this is the most widely accepted hypothesis.^[20][21][23] Over the following centuries these settlers developed into a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) which would cooperate, compete and sometimes fight with each other. At some point a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.^[24][25]

The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman and his crew in 1642.^[26] Māori killed four of the crew and no Europeans returned to New Zealand until British explorer James Cook's voyage of 1768–71.^[26] Cook reached New Zealand in 1769 and mapped almost the entire coastline. Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food and goods, especially metal tools and weapons, for Māori timber, food, artefacts, water, and on occasion sex.^[27]

The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare, beginning in the frequently visited north then spreading southwards. The potato provided a reliable surplus even in colder inland climates, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.^[28] The resulting Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori,^[29] although introduced diseases would play an even greater role in the Māori population's decline to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century.^[30] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand and converted most of the Māori population. , although their initial inroads were mainly among the more disaffected elements of society.^[31]

Becoming aware of the lawless nature of European settlement and of increasing French interest in the territory, the British government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832.^[32] Busby failed to bring law and order to European settlement, but did oversee the introduction of the first national flag on 20 March 1834, after an unregistered New Zealand ship was seized in Australia. In October 1835, following an announcement of impending French sovereignty, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent the Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand to King William IV of the United Kingdom, asking him for protection.^[32]

Ongoing unrest and the legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson RN to New Zealand to claim sovereignty for the British Crown and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.^{[n 2]} The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.^[34] Although the drafting was done hastily and confusion and disagreements continue to surround the translation the Treaty is generally regarded as one of the nations founding documents and is valued by Māori as a guarantee of their rights.^[35] In response to the commercially run New Zealand Company attempts to establishing an independent settlement in Wellington^[36] and French settlers "purchasing" land in Akaroa,^[37] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, despite the fact that copies of the Treaty were still circulating.^[38][39] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.^[40]

Under British rule, New Zealand had originally been part of the colony of New South Wales, but became a separate Crown colony in 1841.^[41] Hobson initially selected Okiato as the capital in 1840, before moving the seat of government to Auckland in 1841. The Māori were initially eager to trade with the settlers and many iwi became wealthy. As immigrant numbers increased, conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Land Wars of the 1860s and 1870s, resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land.^[42]

Representative government for the colony was provided for in 1852 when the United Kingdom passed the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852.^[43] The 1st New Zealand Parliament met in 1854 and in 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing with the grant of responsible government over all domestic matters other than native policy.^[43] Control over native policy passed to the colonial government in the mid-1860s.

In 1863 Premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution that the capital transfer to a locality in Cook Strait, apparently due to concern that the South Island might form a separate colony. Commissioners from Australia (chosen for their neutral status) advised that Wellington was suitable because of its harbour and central location, and parliament officially sat there for the first time in 1865.^[44] In 1893 the country became the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote.^[45]

In 1907 New Zealand declared itself a Dominion within the British Empire and in 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, making New Zealand a Commonwealth realm,^[43] although in practice Britain had long since ceased to play a significant role in governing New Zealand. As the country became more politically independent, however, it became more dependent economically; in the 1890s, refrigerated shipping allowed the export of meat and dairy products to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.^[46]

New Zealand was an enthusiastic member of the British Empire, fighting in the Boer War, World War I and World War II.^[47] The country was very much a part of the world economy and suffered as others did in the Great Depression of the 1930s.^[48] The depression led to the election of the first Labour government, which established a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy.^[49]

New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II.^[50] However, some social problems were developing; Māori had begun to leave traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work.^[51] A Māori protest movement developed, which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi, which they felt had not been fully honoured.^[52] In 1975, a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty, and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985.^[53] In common with other developed countries, social developments accelerated in the 1970s and social and political mores changed.

Britain's membership of the European Economic Community in 1973 drastically reduced access for New Zealand exporters to their previous largest market.^[54] This and the oil shocks of the 1970s led to significant economic and social changes during the 1980s under the 4th Labour government largely led by Finance Minister Roger Douglas, whose policies are commonly referred to as Rogernomics.^[55]

New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy.^[56] Queen Elizabeth II is the current head of state and is titled Queen of New Zealand under the Royal Titles Act 1974.^[57] The Queens functions and powers are limited by constitutional constraints.^[58] Although New Zealand has no codified constitution, the Constitution Act 1986 is the principal formal statement of New Zealand's constitutional structure.^[59] The Queen is represented by the Governor-General, whom she appoints on the exclusive advice of the Prime Minister.^[60] The current Governor-General is Anand Satyanand.^[61]

The Governor-General can exercise the Crown's prerogative powers (such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of Cabinet ministers, ambassadors and other key public officials)^[62] and in rare situations, the reserve powers (the power to dismiss a Prime Minister, dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law).^[63] The Governor-General also presides over, but is not a member of, the Executive Council.^[64] This is a formal committee consisting of all ministers of the Crown who advise the Governor-General. The Queen and Governor-General cannot normally exercise any power without the advice of the Cabinet, except in circumstances where there is no cabinet or cabinet has lost the confidence of Parliament.^[63]

The Parliament of New Zealand is the supreme legislative power and consists of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor-General) and the House of Representatives.^[58] Parliament consists of a single chamber, although up until 1950 there was a second chamber, consisting of an upper house known as the Legislative Council.^[59] The supremacy of the House over the Sovereign was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.^[58] The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats.^[58] If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties is obtained through confidence votes. The Governor-General appoints ministers of the Crown under advice from the Prime Minister, who is by convention, the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.^[65] Cabinet, led by the Prime Minister, is the highest policy-making body in the government and consists of most of the ministers.^[66]

Almost all parliamentary general elections between 1853 and 1996 were held under the first past the post (FPP) system.^[67] Under FPP the candidate in a given electorate that receives the most votes is elected to parliament. The only deviation from the FPP system during this time occurred in the 1908 election when a second ballot system was tried.^[67] Under this system the elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.^[67] Criticism of the FPP system began in the 1950s and intensified after Labour lost the 1978 and 1981 elections despite having more overall votes than National.^[68] An indicative (non-binding) referendum to change the voting system was held in 1992, which lead to a binding referendum during the 1993 election.^[68] A form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) was voted in and has been ever since. Under the MMP system each person has two votes, one decides the 65 electoral seats (including seven reserved for the indigenous Māori people) through FPP and the other is for a party. The remaining 55 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote.^[59] A party has to win one electoral seat or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for one of the 120 seats in Parliament.

General elections are held every three years, with the last one in 2008 and the next due for 2011. National won the 2008 election ending nine years of Labour led Government. National leader John Key formed a coalition government, negotiating agreements with the ACT party, the United Future party and the Māori Party.^[69] The leaders of each of these parties hold ministerial posts but remain outside of Cabinet. There are three parties in Opposition; the Labour Party, the Greens and the Progressive Party.

Once New Zealand became a crown colony it was no longer under the jurisdiction of the New South Wales Supreme Court, their authority ending on 22 December 1841.^[70] The first judge of the New Zealand Judiciary was appointed three weeks later. The Judiciary consists of Judges and judicial officers that are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure in order to maintain constitutional independence from the government.^[59] This theoretically allows it to interpret the law based on policies passed by Parliament without other influences on their decision.^[71] The Privy Council in London was the final court of appeal until 2004 when it was abolished and replaced with the Supreme Court of New Zealand, now New Zealands highest court. The judiciary also includes the Court of Appeal; the High Court, and subordinate courts.^[59] The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice and that position is cutrrently occupied by Dame Sian Elias.^[72]

Between March 2005 and August 2006, 112 years after it became the first country to grant women the right to vote, New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land were occupied simultaneously by women: (Queen) Elizabeth II, (Governor-General) Dame Silvia Cartwright, (Prime Minister) Helen Clark, (Speaker of the New Zealand House of Representatives) Margaret Wilson and (Chief Justice) Dame Sian Elias.^[73]

Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.^[74] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties, with the first successful commercial treaty being with Japan in 1928. Despite this independence New Zealand readily followed Britain in declaring war on Germany on 3 September 1939. Then Prime Minister Michael Savage at the time proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."^[75]

New Zealanders fought and died in the two world wars, with notable campaigns in Gallipoli, Crete,^[76] El Alamein^[77] and Cassino.^[78] In Gallipoli, 2721 New Zealanders lost their lives over nine months of fighting.^[79] The campaign played an important part in fostering a national identity^[80][81] and strengthened the ANZAC tradition between New Zealand and Australia. New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate^[82] and the Battle of Britain air campaign.^[83][84] During the Pacific part of World War II, the United States had more than 400,000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand.^[85]

In 1951 New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty,^[86] and later fought alongside the United States in both the Korean^[87] and the Vietnam Wars.^[88] In contrast, the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests following the Suez Crisis, and New Zealand was forced to develop new markets after the UK joined the EEC in 1973.^[89] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,^[90] the failure of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,^[91] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.

In February 1985, New Zealand turned away the US Buchanan under a new government policy of not allowing nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships access to its ports.^[92] In response the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand unless port access was restored. New Zealand strengthened its anti-nuclear stance by passing the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, the first Western-allied state to enact such legislation.^[93][94] In 2010, the United States and New Zealand began a new strategic partnership by signing the Wellington Declaration.^[95] According to the Prime Minister the Declaration was not a return to an ANZUS style security treaty,^[96] despite reports of increased military co-operation since 2007.^[97]

New Zealand works closely with Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.^[98] These close ties are due to geographical proximity, relative isolation from the rest of the world and strong cultural similarities. The Gallipoli campaign solidified this relationship, creating the so called ANZAC spirit.^[99] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries and the Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement allows free trade between the two countries.^[100] The Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangements of 1973 provides freedom for citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions. Currently over 500 000 New Zealanders live in Australia and 65 000 Australians live in New Zealand. Despite the USA's suspension of ANZUS obligations to New Zealand the treaty remained in effect between Australia and New Zealand.^[100] In 2009 there were plans to effectively create domestic flights between New Zealand and Australia,^[101] but these have since been put on hold with the change in the Australian government.^[102]

New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries. A large proportion of New Zealand's aid goes to the islands and many migrate to New Zealand for employment.^[103] New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum (including the East Asia Summit).^[100] New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations,^[104] the Commonwealth of Nations,^[105] the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development^[106] and the Five Powers Defence Arrangements.^[107] New Zealand has a number of free trade agreements, one of the most significant being with China (China's first free trade agreement with a developed country).^[108]

The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches: the New Zealand Army, the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force.^[109] New Zealand currently considers its own national defence needs are modest; it dismantled its air combat capability in 2001.^[110] In addition to Vietnam, Korea and the two world wars, New Zealand fought in the Second Boer War,^[111] the Malayan Emergency,^[112] the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War. It contributed forces to recent regional and global peacekeeping missions, such as those in Cyprus, Somalia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Sinai, Angola, Cambodia, the Iran/Iraq border, Bougainville, East Timor, and the Solomon Islands.^[113] It also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War. New Zealand forces are still active in Afghanistan.^[114]

The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.^[115] These were abolished in 1876 and government was centralised. Many provinces were under financial pressure and central government wanted to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies that had diverged.^[116] As a result, New Zealand has no separately represented subnational entities such as provinces, states or territories. However remnants of the provinces live on in competitive rivalries exhibited in sporting and cultural events.^[117] Since 1876, local government has administered the various regions of New Zealand.^[115]

In 1989, the government decentralised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.^[118] The Resource Management Act 1991 replaced the Town and Country Planning Act as the main planning legislation for local government.^[119] The regional councils role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management".^[118] Territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.^[120] Most local government revenue comes from property tax and it accounts for less than 2 percent of New Zealands gross domestic product (GDP).

The 249 municipalities^[118] that existed in 1975 have been consolidated into 73 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.^[121] Five of the territorial councils (two cities and three districts) are unitary authorities, and also act as regional councils.^[122] The territorial authorities consist of 16 city councils, 57 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a Unitary Authority it undertakes many functions of a Unitary Authority.^[123] The Auckland Region has by far the largest population with an estimated 1,459,700 residents and has been the fastest growing region since 2001.^[121]

Being a part of the monarchy makes New Zealand a "realm".^[124] It is one of 16 realms within the comonwealth.^[125] The Realm of New Zealand comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue.^[124] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing in free association with New Zealand.^[126][127] The New Zealand Parliament can not pass legislation, but with the countries consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem, but is administered by a council of three elders (one for each of the countries atolls).^[128][129] New Zealand operates Scott Base in its Antarctic territory, the Ross Dependency.^[130]

New Zealand is made up of two main islands, the North and South Islands, Te Ika a Maui and Te Wai Pounamu respectively in Māori, and a number of smaller islands, located near the centre of the water hemisphere. The country's islands lie between latitudes 29° and 53°S, and longitudes 165° and 176°E. The main North and South Islands are separated by the Cook Strait, 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide at its narrowest point.^[131] The total land area of 268,021 square kilometres (103,483 sq mi)^[132] is a little less than that of Italy or Japan, and a little more than the United Kingdom.

The country is long (over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis) and narrow (a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),^[133] with approximately 15,134 km (9,404 mi) of coastline.^[134] The five largest inhabited islands behind the North and South Island are Stewart Island/Rakiura, the Chatham Islands (named Rēkohu by Moriori), Great Barrier Island (in the Hauraki Gulf),^[135] d'Urville Island (in the Marlborough Sounds)^[136] and Waiheke Island (about 17.7 km (11.0 mi) from Auckland and the most populated).^[135] The country has extensive marine resources, with the seventh-largest Exclusive Economic Zone in the world, covering over four million square kilometres (1.5 million square miles), more than 15 times its land area.^[137]

The South Island is the largest land mass of New Zealand, and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.^[138] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) the highest of which is Aoraki/Mount Cook at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft).^[139] The top of South Island contains areas of forest in Abel Tasman, Kahurangi and other national parks.^[140] Fiordland, in the south-western corner of the South Island, is an area of high mountains cut through with steep fjords.^[141] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.^[142] The highly active Taupo volcanic zone has formed a large volcanic plateau. The North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu 2,797 metres (9,177 ft), and the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo, are found on this plateau.^{[143][n 3]} The island's north is a flatter area, once covered by huge kauri trees.^[144]

The country owes its varied topography, and perhaps even its emergence above the waves, to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates.^[145] New Zealand is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.^[146] About 25 million years ago, a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region. This is now most evident in the Southern Alps, formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault. Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other, producing the Puysegur Trench to the south, the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island, and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches^[147] further north.^[145]

The latitude of New Zealand, from approximately 34 to 47° S, corresponds closely to that of Italy in the Northern Hemisphere. However, its isolation from continental influences and exposure to cold southerly winds and ocean currents give the climate a much milder character.^[148] The climate throughout the country is mild and temperate, mainly maritime, with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10°C in the south to 16°C in the north. Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.3 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −21.6 °C (−6.9 °F) in Ophir, Otago.^[149]

Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.^[150] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year; Auckland, the wettest, receives almost twice that amount.^[151] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average in excess of 2000 hours of sunshine. The southern and south-western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1400–1600 hours; the northern and north-eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive approximately 2400–2500 hours.^[152]

New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years^[153] and island biogeography is responsible for the country's unique species of flora and fauna. They have either evolved from Gondwanan wildlife or the few organisms that have managed to reach the shores through flight, swimming or being carried across the sea.^[154] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants^{[n 4]} are endemic, covering 1944 species across 65 genera and includes a single family.^[155][157] The two main types of forest are those dominated by podocarps and/or the giant kauri, and in cooler climates the southern beech.^[158] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.^[159]

Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.^[160] The forests were dominated by birds, the lack of mammalian predators causing some like the kiwi, kakapo and takahē to evolve flightlessness.^[161] The arrival of humans, and the introduction of rats, ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of a number of bird species, including large birds like the moa and Haast's eagle.^[162][163]

Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (skinks, geckos and the living fossil tuatara)),^[164] frogs, spiders (katipo) insects (weta) and snails.^[165][166] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal.^[167] Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the worlds cetaceans and fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.^[168]

Since human arrival an estimated fifty one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, four plant species, one bat and a number of invertebrates have become extinct.^[162] Others are endangered or have had their habitat severely reduced.^[162] New Zealand conservationist's pioneered the use of island restoration as a means to protect these threatened wildlife^{[169][170][171]} and 220 islands larger than 5 hectares were designated as sanctuaries by 2009.^[172]

New Zealand's patterns of greenhouse gas emissions are similar to Scandinavian countries, in that land use and land use change and forestry are amongst the most significant contributors.^[173] Most of the current 11.9 million hectares of agricultural land had been cleared, representing around 44% of the total land area of New Zealand.^[173] Initial attempts to decrease the scale of further deforestation, such as Forestry Rights Registration Act 1983 that created 'forestry rights' have been argued to only be moderately successful.^[173] However, they created world class structures of data collection and property rights that made way first for an amendment to the 1949 Forests Act in 1993 and later to the Climate Change Response Act 2002.^[173] Forestry came to be seen as main tool in meeting New Zealand's Kyoto Protocol targets.^[173] Accordingly, REDD programmes (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) were implemented, whereby reforestation and deforestation was tied carbon emissions credits and traded (ETS) and commercial carbon-sink forests were planted.^[173] Perhaps due to the government's initial control over REDD and the trade in carbon credits there was initially an increase in deforestation and it was not until private forestry owners gained access to the trading scheme and to carbon credits that the scheme started to produce reductions in deforestation.^[173]

New Zealand has a modern, prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product (GDP) at purchasing power parity (PPP) per capita between US$27,420 and $US29,352.^{[n 5]} The New Zealand dollar, informally known as the "Kiwi dollar", is the currency of New Zealand. It also circulates in the Cook Islands (see Cook Islands dollar), Niue, Tokelau, and the Pitcairn Islands.^[177] New Zealand has a relatively high standard of living, comparable to that of Southern Europe.^[178][179] It was ranked 4th in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom published by The Heritage Foundation^[180] and in a survey of 30 countries by the OECD the happiness of the population was ranked 8th.^[181] In 2010, Auckland was ranked the 4th most livable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey^[182]

Historically, New Zealand's strong relationship with the United Kingdom and the high demand for agricultural products helped the population achieving higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.^[183] In 1973 New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis, led to a severe economic depression.^[184] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.^[185] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.^[55][186]

Unemployment that was at a high of 10 percent following the 1987 share market crash had reached a record low of 3.4 percent in 2007 (ranking fifth from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).^[187] The global finacial crisis that followed however had a major impact on New Zealand with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years.^[188][189] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s^[190] that still continues today.^[191] Nearly one quarter of highly-skilled workers live overseas, most in Australia and Britain, the most from any developed nation.^[192] New Zealanders chose to live and work overseas predominately due to career, culture and economic factors, although some do return for family and lifestyle reasons.^[193] In recent years, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and lesser developed countries.^[194][195]

New Zealand is heavily dependent on free trade, particularly in agricultural products. Exports account for a relatively high^{[n 6]} 24 percent of its output,^[197] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Its principal export industries are agriculture, horticulture, fishing and forestry, which make up about half of the country's exports. Its major export partners are Australia, United States, Japan, China, and the United Kingdom.^[197] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.^[198] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.^[197] Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand's economy contributed $15.0 billion to New Zealand’s total GDP and supported 9.6 percent of the total workforce in 2010.^[199] International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3.1 percent in the year to October 2010^[200] and are expected to increase at a rate of 2.5 percent annually up to 2015.^[199]

In 2008, oil, gas and coal generated approximately 69 percent of New Zealand's gross energy supply and 31 per cent was generated from renewable energy, primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power.^[201] New Zealand's transport network consists of 93,906 kilometers of roads and is worth 23 billion dollars.^[202] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.^[203] The Railways were privatised in 1993 and then brought back by the government and vested into a State owned enterprise.^[204] Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carrying freight rather than passengers.^[205]

Agriculture has been and still is the main export industry in New Zealand.^[206] Wool was New Zealand’s major agricultural export making up over a third of all export revenues, but since the 1960s the price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities^[207] and wool no longer makes much profit for many farmers.^[208] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,^[209] to become New Zealands largest export earner.^[210] In the year to June 2009, dairy products accounted for 21 percent ($9.1 billion) of total merchandise exports,^[211] and the largest company in the country, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.^[212] Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13.2 percent, wool 6.3 percent, fruit 3.5 percent and fishing 3.3 percent. New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,^[213] overtaking wool exports briefly in 2007.^[214]

The government offered a number of subsidies during the 1970s to help farmers after the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community^[215] and by the early 1980s government support provided some farmers with 40% of there income.^[216] In 1984 the Labour government ended all farm subsidies,^[217] and by 1990 the agricultural industry became the most deregulated sector in New Zealand.^[218] To compete in the heavily subsidised European and US markets New Zealand farmers increased the efficiency of their operations.^[219][220] Animal farming is pasture based, cows and sheep are rarely housed or fed large quantities of grain, with most farmers using grass based supplements such as hay and silage during feed shortages. Pigs are usually kept indoors, either in gestation crates, farrowing crates, fattening pens, or group housing.^[221]

The population of New Zealand is approximately 4.39 million,^{[n 7]}. In the 2006 census, 67.6 percent identified ethnically as European and 14.6 percent as Māori.^[222] Other major ethnic groups include Asian (9.2 percent) and Pacific peoples (6.9 percent), while 11.1 percent identified themselves simply as a "New Zealander" (or similar) and 1 percent identified with other ethnicities.^{[223][n 8]} This contrasts with 1961 when the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Maori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent.^[225] While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally^[226] and by locals.^[227] The term Pākehā usually refers to New Zealanders of European descent, although some reject this appellation,^[228][229] and some Māori use it to refer to all non-Māori and non-Polynesian New Zealanders.^[230]

Most European New Zealanders are of British and Irish ancestry, although there has been significant Dutch, Dalmatian,^[231] Italian, and German immigration together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.^[232] New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 72% of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53% living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.^[233] The life expectancy of a child born in 2008 was 82.4 years for a girl, and 78.4 years for a boy.^[234] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline 2050.^[235] In 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5.3 million, the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people sixty years of age and older rising from 18 percent to 29percent.^[235]

The Maori were the first immigrants to reach New Zealand, then the early European settlers. Following colonisation immigrants predominately came from Britain, Ireland and Australian due to restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies.^[236] Following the Great Depression and World War II the policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased. In 2008–09, a target of 45,000 migrants was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service (plus a 5,000 tolerance).^[237] Twenty-three percent of New Zealands population are born overseas, most living in the Auckland region.^[238] While most still come from the United Kingdom and Ireland (29 percent), immigration from East Asia (mostly mainland China, but with substantial numbers also from Korea, Taiwan, Japan, and Hong Kong) is increasing the fastest.^[239] The number of fee paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.^[240]

Until 1987, English was New Zealand's only official language, and remains predominant in most settings; Māori became an official language under the 1987 Māori Language Act^[241] and New Zealand Sign Language under the New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006.^[242][243] The two official spoken languages are also the most widely used; English is spoken by 98% of the population and Māori by 4.1%.^[6] Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.3%),^{[n 9]} followed by French, Hindi, Yue and Northern Chinese.^{[6][244][n 10]}

Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.^[245] There are 13 school years and attending public schools is free. New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent,^[197] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.^{[245][n 11]} In the adult population 14.2 percent have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4 percent have no formal qualification.^[246]

Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, held by 55.6 percent of the population with another 34.7 percent indicated that they had no religion, up from 29.6 percent in 2001, and around 4 percent affiliated with other religions.^{[247][n 12]} The main Christian denominations are Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism, Presbyterianism and Methodism. There are also significant numbers who identify themselves with Pentecostal, Baptist, and LDS (Mormon) churches. The New Zealand-based Ratana church has adherents among Māori. According to census figures, other significant minority religions include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.^[244][248]

Early Māori developed their own distinctive culture based on the Polynesian culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whanau), sub-tribes (hapu) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira) whose position was subject to the communities approval.^[250] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Maori culture,^[251][252] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.^[253] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.^[254] More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Maori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.

The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers ("Kiwi ingenuity") and overly modest types.^[255] At this time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country^[256] and the phenomena known as the "Tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers are criticised harsher than their less successful peers was evident.^[257] Maori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Maori into British New Zealanders.^[258] In the 1960s as higher education became more available and cities expanded^[259] urban culture began to dominate.^[260] Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities, much of New Zealand's art, literature, film and humour has rural themes.

After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.^[258] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,^[261][262] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987.^[241] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels, the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime-time content delivered in Māori.^[263]

As part of the resurgence of Maori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practiced and Maori artists are increasing in number and influence.^[264] Early New Zealand paintings and photographs were dominated by landscapes^[265] The pre-eminent Maori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (marae) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were diverse and originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different forms or needs.^[266] Prior to 2000 New Zealand fashion had a reputation for being casual, practical and lackluster.^[267][268] The New Zealand fashion industry has grown significantly since, increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels and doubling exports over ten years, with some labels gaining international recognition.^[268]

Maori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.^[269] Most early literature was obtained from Britain and it wasn't until the 1950s and the increase in publishing outlets that New Zealand Literature started to become widely known.^[270] New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop and may of these genres have been given a New Zealand and Polynesian interpretation.^[271] Immigrants have also brought over their ethnic music, one of the earliest being the Scottish pipe band.^[271] Some artisst release Maori language songs and the Maori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.^[272]

Radio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960, with the number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970.^[273] In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement. Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.^[273] New Zealand television broadcasts mostly American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows. The diverse scenery, small size and government incentives have meant that some big budget films have been filmed in New Zealand.^[274][275] The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned,^{[n 13]} although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations. Between 2003 and 2008, Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealands press freedom in the top twenty.^[276]

The major sporting codes played in New Zealand all have English origins. Early sports played in New Zealand were cricket, bowls, hockey and lawn tennis, while horse racing and fishing were also popular.^[277] Horse racing is a popular spectator sport and became part of the traditional "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture.^[278] The first rugby football game was played in 1870 and successful tours by the unofficial and official national teams to Australia and the United Kingdom played a role in forging New Zealand's national identity.^[279] Changes in society reduced rugby's importance in providing national unity and individual identity, which was epitomised by the protests during the 1981 tour from South Africa.^[280] Maori participation in sport was particularly evident in rugby and a haka (traditional Māori challenge) is performed before the start of international matches.^[281] The national rugby union team (nicknamed the All Blacks) is the most successful national sports team in New Zealand^[282] and along with cricket, bowls, netball, soccer, motorsports, golf, swimming and tennis, one of the most popular.^{[283][n 14]}

New Zealand also has strong international teams in netball, cricket, rugby league, and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons, rowing, yachting and cycling. The country is internationally recognised for performing well on a medals-to-population ratio at Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games.^[284][285] New Zealand is well known for its extreme sports and adventure tourism.^[286] Its reputation in extreme sports extends from the establishment of the world's first commercial bungy jumping site.^[287] The country also has a strong mountaineering tradition, with New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary and the Nepalese Sherpa Tenzing Norgay the first to reach the summit of Mount Everest.^[288] Other outdoor pursuits such as tramping, hunting and fishing are also popular. Racing the Polynesian waka ama has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific.

New Zealand ranks highly in international comparisons on human development, quality of life, life expectancy, literacy, public education, peace,^[289] prosperity, economic freedom, ease of doing business, lack of corruption, press freedom, and the protection of civil liberties and political rights.^[290]

The country's major cities also consistently rank among the world's most livable.^[293]

• List of New Zealand-related topics
• Outline of New Zealand

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

• "New Zealand". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
• New Zealand from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Template:Dmoz
• Wikimedia Atlas of New Zealand

Government

• New Zealand Government portal
• Ministry for Culture and Heritage – includes information on flag, anthems and coat of arms
• Statistics New Zealand

Other

• Te Ara, The Encyclopedia of New Zealand
• New Zealand Plant Conservation Network website for information about the indigenous flora and species of introduced weed and animal pest
• New Zealand weather
• NZHistory.net.nz New Zealand history website

Travel

• Template:Wikitravel
• Tourism New Zealand

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