User:BarlowC4/sandbox

The Corvus corax can live in a wide range of habitats, it is very successful at adapting to different environments.^[1] Although the Corvus corax can live in many different habitats, the common raven is hyperosmotic to its habitat as it is always in a terrestrial habitat. Living in a terrestrial habitat causes a few problems for the common raven, it constantly must intake water and salts to balance its water/salt content in the blood. Since the terrestrial habitat is hyposmotic in relation to the Corvus corax it does not have to worry about water loss, it uses kidneys to regulate salt content in the blood and usually excretes a very dilute excrement. The common raven is a very experienced hunter and will hunt anything from bird eggs, to frogs, to the common field mouse and even up to a small chicken. When times are tough for hunting the Corvus corax will rely on its keen sense of smell and sight to scavenge for food. The Corvus corax is a master scavenger by trade and has an intake of salt by eating mostly carrion from dead animals though the common raven will easily eat human garbage if available to them. In the case of most of the populations of Corvus corax which live more in the northern parts of North America, harsh winters can be very advantageous with large death rate of herbivores allowing for easy meals for the raven. In fact food can be so bountiful that the common raven which is usually solitary in nature, only ever living with one partner to actually allow other scavengers such as bald eagles, magpies, crows, and other scavenger to fest with them on a dead pile with little to no competition.^[2] The difference in diet between the populations of Corvus corax near the sea compared to the boreal forest is immense; ravens near the more marine based terrestrial habitat prey primarily on gulls eggs and hatchlings as well as supplementing their diet with seaweed; note that the feces of these populations showed huge quantities of seaweed indicating that it was an essential source of nutrition even though it was largely indigestible. ^[3]

These populations have a much higher intake of salt compared to the populations in the more inland regions and therefore excrete more potent hyperosmotic excrement. With a diet with sufficient salt concentrations the Corvus corax rarely is desperate for salt intake, instead it focusses on water intake primarily through the food it eats, but if this is not sufficient it will drink water or consume snow in the winter as required. Overall the Corvus corax does quite well in many different terrestrial environments using the adaptations of not only its kidneys but as well its enormously vast and varying diet to keep its osmotic pressures of its blood in check. The Corvus corax truly is the master of its domain, being not only a great hunter but a master scavenger, this species of bird can seemingly withstand any change in its environment and physiological conditions in order to survive and prosper. ^[4]

Regulation of water and electrolyte balance, or osmoregulation, within the internal environment of Common Ravens involves the interaction of the kidneys, intestinal tract, skin, and respiratory tracts. However, the kidneys are the primary osmoregulatory organs with the primary function of eliminating wastes and excess water and solutes. ^[5]

Like other birds, the Common Raven is considered a uricotelic organism ^[6] with an osmoregulatory system comprised of a pair of kidneys that constitute 0.8% of its body mass. Similar to mammalian species, the functional units of avian kidneys are the nephrons. Externally, the kidneys are elongated and have three lobes, and the inner portion contains a cortex and medulla. Within the cortex, nephrons are organized around central veins of the efferent venous system. In contrast, the medulla is structured into medullary cones that contain nephron elements, specifically collecting ducts and loops of Henle. As the collecting ducts descend through the medulla, they combine and empty their contents into the ureter. ^[5]

There are two types of avian nephrons, and nephrons become larger as depth from the kidney surface increases. Reptilian-type nephrons are the smallest nephrons, are found near a kidney’s surface, possess simple glomeruli, and do not have loops of Henle. Conversely, between 10% and 30% of the total nephron population is composed of mammalian-type nephrons, which are located in the innermost area of the kidney, have complex glomeruli, and contain loops of Henle. ^[5]

Once the kidneys receive blood, filtration of substances from the blood into urine takes place. The glomerular filtration rate of single nephrons in birds is low because avian glomeruli have small surface area. Through the process of reabsorption, the majority of the fluid volume and solutes are transported from the urine to the blood. Next, secretion of materials from the renal epithelia into the urine occurs. Finally, urine as the end product travels to the ureters to be excreted. The kidneys of a Common Raven filter about eleven times its total body water daily, and more than 95% of the filtered water is reabsorbed. Urine of birds is typically concentrated to an osmolarity that is two to three times the osmolarity of plasma. Glomerular filtration only accounts for 10% to 20% of urinary urate. Greater than 90% of urate excreted by the kidneys is derived from the process of secretion. ^[5]

The osmoregulatory system is interconnected with the circulatory system to permit effective regulation of salt and water balance. Circulatory fluids function in renal clearance, which is the blood volume that substances are removed from within the kidneys during a certain time period. In addition to filtration, the circulatory system also plays a role in reabsorption. Furthermore, the role of the renal portal system is to regulate renal hemodynamics during times of decreased arterial blood pressure. ^[5]

Kidneys of Common Ravens receive arterial and afferent venous blood and are drained by efferent veins. In terms of the arterial blood supply, the arteries entering the kidneys branch into numerous smaller arteries and eventually form afferent arterioles that supply the glomeruli. The peritubular blood supply is composed of efferent arterioles leaving the glomeruli of reptilian-type nephrons that drain into sinuses of the cortex. On the other hand, the vasa recta are formed by efferent arterioles exiting the glomeruli of mammalia-type nephrons. Next, the renal portal system, which involves the afferent veins, obtains blood from the ischiadic and external iliac veins. The renal portal valve is situated between the renal portal vein and the common iliac vein which leads to the posterior vena cava. Closing of the valve directs the blood to flow into the renal portal vein, and when the valve is open, blood flows into the vena cava. After entering the renal portal vein, blood enters the peritubular blood supply. Here, blood from the portal veins and the efferent arterioles are mixed and travel out of the kidneys through the efferent veins. Alternatively, blood can also flow towards the liver. ^[5]

Research indicates that kidneys of avian species receive approximately 10% to 15% of cardiac output. The renal blood of Common Ravens is composed of various molecules. As was stated earlier, approximately 95% of the filtered water is reabsorbed into the blood supply. Since birds are able to produce hyperosmotic urine, the blood plasma usually contains a lot of wate. In normally hydrated birds, the blood concentrations of arginine vasotocin, which is a peptide hormone involved in regulating plasma water concentrations, is 10pg/mL. Other hormones within the blood supply include angiotensin, aldosterone, and atrial natriuretic peptide. In addition, plasma sodium concentrations are maintained within normal levels even when dietary sodium intake is altered in order to regulate blood pressure, greater than 98% of filtered calcium is reabsorbed, and about 60% of filtered phosphate is excreted in urine. Before filtration, plasma urate concentration is between 0.1 and 0.7 mM. Finally, the arterial pH of birds is alkaline and maintained at a value of approximately 7.5. ^[5]

The avian respiratory system is not in direct contact with the osmoregulatory system. However, the respiratory tract participates in osmoregulation through evaporative water loss. Since Common Ravens are endothermic and have high rates of ventilation, respiratory water loss is inevitable. ^[5]

The kidneys in aves are devided into units called lobules. Within each lobule are numerous nephrons responsible for filtering circulating blood. Blood that is directed to the liver enters the glomerulus under high pressure and leaks out in between the endothelial cells of the glomerulus capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule. The blood plasma filtrate contains waste along with non-waste essentials like glucose and ions. Once the filtrate enters the proximal tubule immediate reabsorption of essential molecules into the blood begins.^[7]

Reabsorbsion of molecules and ions back into the blood from the proximal tube is done via epithelial cells. The epithelial cell create a low Na+ concentration within the cell by actively pumping out Na+ into the blood via a Na+/K+ ATPase pump on the basolateral membrane. The osmotic gradient allows for the cotransport of Na+ with molecules such as Cl-, glucose , and vitamins into the epithelial cell from the apical side(side facing the proximal tubual). Water freely crosses the apical side into the epithelial cell following the solutes entering actively. With all the essential molecules inside the epithelial cell, some such as Cl-, glucose and vitamins pass through there respective channels on the basal lateral side into the blood. Na+ continues to be pumped into the blood maintaining the osmotic gradient allowing for continuous reabsorbtion of these molecules and ions.^[8] Terrestrial birds like the Corvus corax produce urine that is osmoltically more concentrated then its blood plasma. This is likely due to the fact that water is not as abundant in raven habitat.

A key function of the Loop of Henle is to provide a large distance over which ions are transported out of the nephrons and since water will follow the transport of ions out of the nephrons, the Loop of Henle is an important structure to insure minimal water lose out the ureters. Since not all nephrons of aves have the Loop of Henle, a birds ability to create a hypertonic filtrate can be more challenging then mammals. In response to dehydration birds release a hormone known as arginine vasotocin (AVT) into the blood. Among its roles AVT reduces the rate at which blood plasma filters out of the glomeruli and into the Bowman’s capsule. This reduces the total amount of water leaving the blood. Another function of AVT is its ability to increase permeability of the collecting ducts by opening protein water channels. These channels, called aquaporins, allow more solutes to leave the collecting duct and water will follow through osmosis. These two functions of AVT allow birds to maintain a concentrated urine.^[9] Avian kidneys do not send urine to a bladder. Instead it is sent via the ureters to the cloaca to be deposited into the lower intestine. The epithelium of the lower intestine absorbs a large amount of sodium chloride, and water follows osmotically to be reabsorbed into the blood stream. This final step insures a concentrated waste product with minimal water and ion loss from excretion.^[10]

Since the expansion of the human population and urbanization, there have been numerous extinctions of birds. Extinctions threaten nearly 12% of bird species, but this does not account for an additional 12% of species located in small geographical ranges where human actions rapidly destroy habitats.^[11] Due to pressures from humans and the environment, birds have unique features that permit adaptations to changing conditions.

The Common Raven migrates long distances for food and mating. Since ravens, and birds in general, travel to such extents, they have a unique adaptation for flying in high altitude environments. Specifically, neural mediating reflexes increase breathing. The locomotors system stimulates breathing directly from feed forward stimulation from brainstem centers and feedback stimulation from exercising muscles. In the carotid body, the bird’s chemoreceptors detect low oxygen and stimulate breathing during hypoxia.^[12] Also, if breathing is hypoxic, the bird can use CO2/pH-sensitive chemoreceptors to restrain breathing. Due to ventilatory responses, this process leads to secondary hypocapnia. Because birds are exposed to a wide variety of toxic gases and air bourn particles in the environment, studies have used birds to measure air quality.^[13]

Not only is a bird’s respiration adapted to handle high altitude flight, but so too is the circulatory system. In general, birds have larger heart sizes and higher cardiac output. During flight, birds can sustain their heart rates, and their myosin flight muscles have better oxygen diffusion because of a high degree of branching between the capillaries.^[14]

The Common Raven lives in a wide variety of climates. Due to its habitat and food, the Common Raven has unique features that allow it to regulate osmotic challenges. Common Ravens can be observed in oceans consuming water. However, when birds consume salt loaded prey or drink salt water, the body’s internal osmoregularity increases. The solution produced is considerably more concentrated than seawater.^[15] Birds are the only group of vertebrates that have the ability to produce hyposmotic urine. The ability to produce hyposmotic urine is from the medullary cones. Urine is mixed with digestive fluids rather than directly eliminated. Consequently, the avian gut plays an important role in water and salt regulation.^[16] In mammals, the osmotic gradient is urea, whereas in birds, sodium chloride is the major solute in the medullary cones. ^[15] In birds, the kidneys are not solely responsible for osmoregulation. A unique feature in birds is the lower intestine, which absorbs fluids and electrolytes that were not absorbed by the small intestine or the kidneys.^[15] These osmoregulatory adaptations allow the Common Raven to thrive in diverse habitats.

Common Ravens inhabit areas affected by seasonal temperature changes. Those living in northern regions are exposed to extremely cold temperatures during the winter months and large fluctuations in ambient temperature throughout the rest of the year. ^[17] One way the Common Raven’s body copes with the frigid temperatures is by having a lower critical temperature of 0°C.^[17]

Researchers investigating Common Ravens inhabiting the interior of Alaska measured ravens’ metabolic and thermal responses to air temperatures between +35°C and -80°C.^[17] After analyzing the data, four conclusions were proposed about thermoregulatory and metabolic adaptations in Common Ravens. First, metabolic rates of ravens acclimatized to either summer or winter remained relatively constant at all of the experimental temperatures. For ravens acclimatized to summer climates, the resting metabolic rate during the day was 8.4 kcal/hour. Next, skin and cloacal temperatures demonstrated a very small increase in thermal capacity for subjects used to winter temperatures. The final and most important finding of the study indicated that northern Common Ravens’ cold tolerance is due to continuous high heat production. Cold tolerance was not attributed to a reduction of heat loss through insulative adaptations.

In another study, the maximum ability of passerine and nonpasserine species to dissipate excess heat produced from an increased metabolic rate resulting from exercise and heat stress was measured. ^[18] Common Ravens, which are a passerine species, had a basal metabolic rate of 6 W during the summer. Also, the ravens were able to increase the quantity of dissipated, nonevaporative heat loss without increasing evaporative heat loss. Through this physiological mechanism, Common Ravens can conserve water and efficiently transform metabolic energy into mechanical work during the summer when temperatures are high. The researcher also suggested that reduced evaporative heat loss is related to the efficient organization of the circulatory and respiratory systems.