Wikipedia

List of Atlantic hurricane records

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

As of May 2024, there have been 1,727 tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm intensity, 960 at hurricane intensity, and 333 at major hurricane intensity within the Atlantic Ocean since 1851, the first Atlantic hurricane season to be included in the official Atlantic tropical cyclone record.[1] Though a majority of these cyclones have fallen within climatological averages, prevailing atmospheric conditions occasionally lead to anomalous tropical systems which at times reach extremes in statistical record-keeping including in duration and intensity.[2] The scope of this list is limited to tropical cyclone records solely within the Atlantic Ocean and is subdivided by their reason for notability.

Tropical cyclogenesis

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Most active / least active Atlantic hurricane seasons

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Most Atlantic hurricane seasons prior to the weather satellite era include seven or fewer recorded tropical storms or hurricanes. As the usage of satellite data was not available until the mid-1960s, early storm counts are less reliable. Before the advent of the airplane or means of tracking storms, the ones recorded were storms that affected mainly populated areas. An undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 has been estimated.[3]

With the advent of the satellite came better and more accurate weather tracking. The first satellites sent into space to monitor the weather were known as Television Infrared Observation Satellites (TIROS). In 1961, Hurricane Esther was the first hurricane to be "discovered" through satellite readings.[4] Although this modern invention was now available, the systems were initially not fully active enough to provide daily images of the storms.[5] Data for the North Atlantic region remained sparse as late as 1964 due to a lack of complete satellite coverage.[6]

Due to the above factors, terms such as "ever" or "on record" should be interpreted to mean "since sometime between 1964 and 1978".

The most active Atlantic hurricane season on record in terms of total storms took place in 2020, with 30 documented. The storm count for the 2020 season also includes fourteen hurricanes, of which seven strengthened to major hurricane status. On the converse, the least active season on record in terms of total storms took place in 1914. The 1914 season had just one tropical storm and no hurricanes.

Most storms in a year
Year Tropical storms Hurricanes
Hurricanes Major
2020 30 * 14 7
2005 28 * 15 7
2021 21 * 7 4
1933 200 11 6
2023 20 * 7 3
1887 190 11 2
1995 190 11 5
2010 190 12 5
2011 190 7 4
2012 190 10 2
* Includes at least one subtropical storm
Source: [7]
Fewest storms in a year
Year Tropical storms Hurricanes
Hurricanes Major
1914 1 0 0
1930 3 2 2
1857 4 3 0
1868 4 3 0
1883 4 3 2
1884 4 4 1
1890 4 2 1
1917 4 2 2
1925 4 2 0
1983 4 3 1
Source: [7]

Earliest / latest formations for each category

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Radar image of Hurricane Alice (1954–55), the only Atlantic tropical cyclone on record to span two calendar years at hurricane strength

Climatologically speaking, approximately 97 percent of tropical cyclones that form in the North Atlantic develop between June 1 and November 30 – dates which delimit the modern-day Atlantic hurricane season. Though the beginning of the annual hurricane season has historically remained the same, the official end of the hurricane season has shifted from its initial date of October 31. Regardless, on average once every few years a tropical cyclone develops outside the limits of the season;[8] as of 2023 there have been 92 tropical cyclones in the off-season, with the most recent being an unnamed subtropical storm in January 2023. The first tropical cyclone of the 1938 Atlantic hurricane season, which formed on January 3, became the earliest forming tropical storm and hurricane after reanalysis concluded on the storm in December 2012.[9] Hurricane Able in 1951 was initially thought to be the earliest forming major hurricane;[nb 1] however, following post-storm analysis, it was determined that Able only reached Category 1 strength, which made Hurricane Alma of 1966 the new record holder, as it became a major hurricane on June 8.[11] Though it developed within the bounds of the Atlantic hurricane season,[8][11] Hurricane Audrey in 1957 was the earliest developing Category 4 hurricane on record after it reached the intensity on June 27.[12] However, reanalysis[11] of 1956 to 1960 by NOAA downgraded Audrey to a Category 3, making Hurricane Dennis of 2005 the earliest Category 4 on record in the calendar year on July 8, 2005.[13] That mark stood until surpassed by Hurricane Beryl on June 30, 2024. Beryl would also become the earliest Category 5 two days later, surpassing Hurricane Emily of 2005.

Though the official end of the Atlantic hurricane season occurs on November 30, the dates of October 31 and November 15 have also historically marked the official end date for the hurricane season.[8] December, the only month of the year after the hurricane season, has featured the cyclogenesis of fourteen tropical cyclones.[11] The second Hurricane Alice in 1954 was the latest forming tropical storm and hurricane, reaching these intensities on December 30 and 31, respectively. Hurricane Alice and Tropical Storm Zeta were the only two storms to exist in two calendar years – the former from 1954 to 1955 and the latter from 2005 to 2006.[14] No storms have been recorded to exceed Category 1 hurricane intensity in December.[11] In 1999, Hurricane Lenny reached Category 4 intensity on November 17 as it took an unusual west to east track across the Caribbean; its intensity made it the latest developing Category 4 hurricane, though this was well within the bounds of the hurricane season.[15] Based on reanalysis, the devastating Cuba hurricane in 1932 reached Category 5 intensity on November 5, making it the latest in any Atlantic hurricane season to reach this intensity.[11][9][nb 2]

Earliest and latest forming Atlantic tropical / subtropical cyclones by Saffir–Simpson classification
Storm
classification		 Earliest formation Latest formation
Season Storm Date reached Season Storm Date reached
Tropical depression 1900 Unnumbered[18] January 17 1954 Alice[11] December 30[nb 3]
Tropical storm 1938 One[11] January 3 1954 Alice[11] December 30[nb 4]
Category 1 1938 One[11] January 4 1954 Alice[11] December 31
Category 2 1908 One[11] March 7 2016 Otto[11] November 24
Category 3 1966 Alma[11] June 8 2016 Otto[11] November 24
Category 4 2024 Beryl[19] June 30 1999 Lenny[11] November 17
Category 5 2024 Beryl[20] July 2 1932 "Cuba"[16] November 5

Most tropical / subtropical storms formed in each month

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The Atlantic hurricane season presently runs from June 1 through November 30 each year, with peak activity occurring between August and October. Specifically, the height of the season is in early to mid-September.[8] Tropical systems that form outside of these months are referred to as "off season", and account for roughly 3% of all storms that form in a given year.[8] All of the records included below are for the most storms that formed in a given month, as the threshold for "fewest" is zero for expected months. Cases where "fewest storms" are unusual include the months when the hurricane season is at its peak.

Number of Atlantic tropical / subtropical storm occurrences by month of naming
Month
Most Season
January 1[21] 1938, 1951, 1978, 2016, 2023
February 1[22] 1952[nb 5]
March 1[23] 1908[nb 5]
April 1[21] 1992, 2003, 2017
May 2[21] 1887, 2012, 2020
June 3[21] 1886, 1909, 1936, 1966, 1968, 2021, 2023, 2024
July 5[24] 2005, 2020
August 8[21] 2004, 2012
September 10[25] 2020
October 8[21] 1950
November 3[26] 1931, 1961, 1966, 2001, 2005, 2020, 2024
December 2[21] 1887, 2003

Earliest formation records by storm number

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Earliest and next earliest forming Atlantic tropical / subtropical storms by storm number
Storm
number 		Earliest Next earliest
Name Date of formation Name Date of formation
1 One[11] January 3, 1938 One[11] January 4, 1951
2 Able[11] May 16, 1951 Two[11] May 17, 1887
3 Cristobal[27] June 2, 2020 Colin[27] June 5, 2016
4 Danielle[28] June 20, 2016 Cindy[28] June 23, 2023[nb 6]
5 Elsa[29] July 1, 2021 Edouard[30] July 6, 2020
6 Fay[30] July 9, 2020 Franklin July 21, 2005
7 Gonzalo[31] July 22, 2020 Gert[31] July 24, 2005
8 Hanna[30] July 24, 2020 Harvey[30] August 3, 2005
9 Isaias[30] July 30, 2020 Irene[30] August 7, 2005
10 Josephine[30] August 13, 2020 Jose[30] August 22, 2005
11 Kyle[30] August 14, 2020 Katrina[30] August 24, 2005
12 Laura[30] August 21, 2020 Luis[30] August 29, 1995
13 Marco[32] August 22, 2020 Maria[32] September 2, 2005[nb 7]
Lee[32] September 2, 2011[nb 8]
14 Nana[33] September 1, 2020 Nate[33] September 5, 2005
15 Omar[34] September 1, 2020 Ophelia[34] September 7, 2005[nb 9]
16 Paulette[35] September 7, 2020 Philippe[35] September 17, 2005
17 Rene[35] September 7, 2020 Rita[35] September 18, 2005
18 Sally[36] September 12, 2020 Sam[37] September 23, 2021
19 Teddy[38] September 14, 2020 Teresa[39] September 24, 2021
20 Vicky[40] September 14, 2020 Victor[41] September 29, 2021
21 Alpha[42] September 17, 2020 Vince October 9, 2005
22 Wilfred[42] September 17, 2020 Wilma October 17, 2005
23 Beta[43] September 18, 2020 Alpha[43] October 22, 2005
24 Gamma[44] October 2, 2020 Beta[44] October 27, 2005
25 Delta[45] October 5, 2020 Gamma[45] November 15, 2005
26 Epsilon[46] October 19, 2020 Delta[46] November 22, 2005
27 Zeta[47] October 25, 2020 Epsilon[48] November 29, 2005
28 Eta[49] November 1, 2020 Zeta[50] December 30, 2005
29 Theta[51] November 10, 2020 Earliest formation by virtue of
being the only of that number
30 Iota[52] November 13, 2020

Intensity

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Most intense

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Main article: List of the most intense tropical cyclones

Generally speaking, the intensity of a tropical cyclone is determined by either the storm's maximum sustained winds or lowest barometric pressure. The following table lists the most intense Atlantic hurricanes in terms of their lowest barometric pressure. In terms of wind speed, Allen from 1980 was the strongest Atlantic tropical cyclone on record, with maximum sustained winds of 190 mph (310 km/h). For many years, it was thought that Hurricane Camille also attained this intensity, but this conclusion was changed in 2014. The original measurements of Camille are suspect since wind speed instrumentation used at the time would likely be damaged by winds of such intensity.[53] Nonetheless, their central pressures are low enough to rank them among the strongest recorded Atlantic hurricanes.[11]

Owing to their intensity, the strongest Atlantic hurricanes have all attained Category 5 classification. Hurricane Opal, the most intense Category 4 hurricane recorded, intensified to reach a minimum pressure of 916 mbar (hPa; 27.05 inHg),[54] a pressure typical of Category 5 hurricanes.[55] Nonetheless, the pressure remains too high to list Opal as one of the ten strongest Atlantic tropical cyclones.[11] Currently, Hurricane Wilma is the strongest Atlantic hurricane ever recorded, after reaching an intensity of 882 mbar (hPa; 26.05 inHg) in October 2005;[53] at the time, this also made Wilma the strongest tropical cyclone worldwide outside of the West Pacific,[56][57][58][59][60] where seven tropical cyclones have been recorded to intensify to lower pressures.[61] However, this was later superseded by Hurricane Patricia in 2015 in the east Pacific, which had a pressure reading of 872 mbar. Preceding Wilma is Hurricane Gilbert, which had also held the record for most intense Atlantic hurricane for 17 years.[62] The 1935 Labor Day hurricane, with a pressure of 892 mbar (hPa; 26.34 inHg), is the third strongest Atlantic hurricane and the strongest documented tropical cyclone prior to 1950.[11] Since the measurements taken during Wilma and Gilbert were documented using dropsonde, this pressure remains the lowest measured over land.[63]

Hurricane Rita is the fourth strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of barometric pressure and one of three tropical cyclones from 2005 on the list, with the others being Wilma and Katrina at first and seventh, respectively.[11] However, with a barometric pressure of 895 mbar (hPa; 26.43 inHg), Rita is the strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Gulf of Mexico.[64] In between Rita and Katrina is Hurricane Allen. Allen's pressure was measured at 899 mbar. Hurricane Camille is the sixth strongest hurricane on record. Camille is the only storm to have been moved down the list due to post-storm analysis. Camille was originally recognized as the fifth strongest hurricane on record, but was dropped to the seventh strongest in 2014, with an estimated pressure at 905 mbars, tying it with Hurricanes Mitch, and Dean. Camille then was recategorized with a new pressure of 900 mbars. Currently, Mitch and Dean share intensities for the eighth strongest Atlantic hurricane at 905 mbar (hPa; 26.73 inHg).[63] Hurricane Maria is in tenth place for most intense Atlantic tropical cyclone, with a pressure as low as 908 mbar (hPa; 26.81 inHg).[65] In addition, the most intense Atlantic hurricane outside of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico is Hurricane Dorian of 2019, with a pressure of 910 mbar (hPa; 26.9 inHg).[66]

Many of the strongest recorded tropical cyclones weakened prior to their eventual landfall or demise. However, four of the storms remained intense enough at landfall to be considered some of the strongest landfalling hurricanes – four of the ten hurricanes on the list constitute four of the top ten most intense Atlantic landfalls in recorded history. The 1935 Labor Day hurricane made landfall at peak intensity, the most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall.[67] Hurricane Camille made landfall in Waveland, Mississippi with a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg), making it the second most intense Atlantic hurricane landfall.[68] Though it weakened slightly before its eventual landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula, Hurricane Gilbert maintained a pressure of 900 mbar (hPa; 26.58 inHg) at landfall, making its landfall the second strongest, tied with Camille. Similarly, Hurricane Dean made landfall on the peninsula, though it did so at peak intensity and with a higher barometric pressure; its landfall marked the fourth strongest in Atlantic hurricane history.[63]

  • Note: Dropsondes have only been GPS-based for use in eyewalls since 1997,[69] and the quantity of aircraft reconnaissance and surface observation stations has changed over time, such that values from storms in different periods may not be 100% consistent.

Most intense by minimum barometric pressure

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Most intense Atlantic hurricanes
Hurricane Season By peak pressure By pressure at landfall
mbar inHg mbar inHg
Wilma 2005 882 26.05
Gilbert 1988 888 26.22 900 26.58
"Labor Day" 1935 892 26.34 892 26.34
Rita 2005 895 26.43
Milton 2024 897 26.49
Allen 1980 899 26.55
Camille 1969 900 26.58 900 26.58
Katrina 2005 902 26.64
Mitch 1998 905 26.72
Dean 2007 905 26.72 905 26.72
"Cuba" 1924 910 26.87
Dorian 2019 910 26.87
Janet 1955 914 26.99
Irma 2017 914 26.99
"Cuba" 1932 918 27.10
Michael 2018 919 27.14
Note: Grey shading indicates that the pressure was not a record, only the top ten storms for each category are included here.

Strongest by 1-minute sustained wind speed

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Strongest Atlantic hurricanes
Hurricane Season By peak sustained wind speed By wind speed at landfall
mph km/h mph km/h
Allen 1980 190 305
"Labor Day" 1935 185 295 185 295
Gilbert 1988 185 295
Dorian 2019 185 295 185 295
Wilma 2005 185 295
Mitch 1998 180 285
Rita 2005 180 285
Irma 2017 180 285 180 285
Milton 2024 180 285
"Cuba" 1932 175 280
Janet 1955 175 280 175 280
Camille 1969 175 280 175 280
Anita 1977 175 280 175 280
David 1979 175 280 175 280
Andrew 1992 175 280 165 270
Katrina 2005 175 280
Dean 2007 175 280 175 280
Felix 2007 175 280 165 270
Maria 2017 175 280 165 270
Note: Grey shading indicates that the wind speed was not a record, only the highest ranking storms for each category are included here.

Fastest intensification

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  • Fastest intensification from a tropical depression to a hurricane (1-minute sustained surface winds) – 12 hours
    Oscar 2024 – 35 mph (55 km/h) to 80 mph (130 km/h) – from 0600 UTC October 19 to 1800 UTC October 19[11]
  • Fastest intensification from a tropical depression to a Category 5 hurricane (1-minute sustained surface winds) – 48 hours 55 minutes
    Milton 2024 – 35 mph (55 km/h) to 160 mph (280 km/h) – from 1500 UTC October 5 to 1555 UTC October 7[70]
  • Fastest intensification from a tropical storm to a Category 5 hurricane (1-minute sustained surface winds) – 24 hours
    Wilma 2005 – 70 mph (110 km/h) to 175 mph (275 km/h) – from 0600 UTC October 18 to 0600 UTC October 19[11]
  • Maximum pressure drop in 12 hours – 83 mbar
    Wilma 2005 – 975 millibars (28.8 inHg) to 892 millibars (26.3 inHg) – from 1800 UTC October 18 to 0600 UTC October 19[11]
  • Maximum pressure drop in 24 hours – 97 mbar
    Wilma 2005 – 979 millibars (28.9 inHg) to 882 millibars (26.0 inHg) – from 1200 UTC October 18 to 1200 UTC October 19[11]

Effects

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Costliest Atlantic hurricanes

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Hurricanes Katrina (left) and Harvey (right) both caused $125 billion in damage, more than any other tropical cyclone worldwide.
Main article: List of costliest Atlantic hurricanes
Costliest Atlantic hurricanes
Rank Hurricane Season Damage[nb 10]
1  5  Katrina 2005 $125 billion
 4  Harvey 2017
3  5  Ian 2022 $113 billion
4  5  Maria 2017 $91.6 billion
5  4  Helene 2024 $87.9 billion
6  5  Milton 2024 $85 billion
7  5  Irma 2017 $77.2 billion
8  4  Ida 2021 $75.3 billion
9  3  Sandy 2012 $68.7 billion
10  4  Ike 2008 $38 billion

Deadliest Atlantic hurricanes

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Hurricane Mitch killed at least 11,374 people in Central America in October 1998.
See also: List of deadliest tropical cyclones
Deadliest Atlantic hurricanes
Rank Hurricane Season Fatalities
1  ?  "Great Hurricane" 1780 22,000–27,501
2  5  Mitch 1998 11,374+
3  2  Fifi 1974 8,210–10,000
4  4  "Galveston" 1900 8,000–12,000
5  4  Flora 1963 7,193
6  ?  "Pointe-à-Pitre" 1776 6,000+
7  5  "Okeechobee" 1928 4,112+
8  ?  "Newfoundland" 1775 4,000–4,163
9  3  "Monterrey" 1909 4,000
10  4  "San Ciriaco" 1899 3,855

Most tornadoes spawned

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Tracks of the 50 mesocyclones and multiple tornado vortex signatures (denoted by inverted red triangles) identified by the NWS Office in Tallahassee Florida September 15–16, 2004.
See also: List of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes
Number of tornadoes spawned
Rank Count Name Year
1 120  5  Ivan 2004
2 115[71]  5  Beulah 1967
3 103[72]  4  Frances 2004
4 101  5  Rita 2005
5 68  5  Beryl 2024
6 57  5  Katrina 2005
7 54  4  Harvey 2017
8 50  TS  Fay 2008
9 49  4  Gustav 2008
10 47  4  Georges 1998

Miscellaneous records

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Miscellaneous records
Record Value Name Season
Distance traveled 6,500 miles (10,500 km)[73]  3  Alberto 2000
Highest forward speed 69 mph (111 km/h)[11][74]  TS  Six 1961
Largest in diameter 1,150 miles (1,850 km)[75]  3  Sandy 2012
Longest duration (non consecutive) 28 days[11][76][77]  4  "San Ciriaco" 1899
Longest duration (consecutive) 27.25 days[11][76][77]  2  Ginger 1971
Longest duration (at category 5) 3.6 days[78]  5  "Cuba" 1932
Northernmost tropical cyclone formation 42.0°N; 23.0°W [11]  TS  Five 1952
Southernmost tropical cyclone formation 7.2°N; 23.4°W [11]  2  Isidore 1990
Easternmost tropical cyclone formation 11.0°N, 14.0°W [11]  TS  Christine 1973
Westernmost tropical cyclone formation 22.4°N, 97.4°W [11]  TD  Eight 2013

Worldwide cyclone records set by Atlantic storms

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Hurricanes reaching Category 3 (111 mph (179 km/h)) and higher on the 5-level Saffir–Simpson wind speed scale are considered major hurricanes.[10]
  2. ^ Although Hurricane Iota in 2020 was operationally analyzed to be a Category 5 hurricane,[16] its peak strength was revised down to Category 4 in the post-season analysis.[17]
  3. ^ 1954's Hurricane Alice and 2005's Tropical Storm Zeta both formed as tropical depressions on December 30; however, Alice formed around 06:00 UTC, about six hours later than Zeta.[11]
  4. ^ 1954's Hurricane Alice and 2005's Tropical Storm Zeta both became tropical storms on December 30; however, Alice became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC, about six hours later than Zeta.[11]
  5. ^ a b Highest number for month by virtue of being the only season on record to have a storm form during that month.
  6. ^ 2020's Dolly and 2023's Cindy both formed on June 23; however, Cindy became a tropical storm around 0:00 UTC, about six hours before Dolly.
  7. ^ 2005's Maria and 2011's Lee both formed on September 2 and each became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC.
  8. ^ 2011's Lee and 2005's Maria both formed on September 2 and each became a tropical storm around 12:00 UTC.
  9. ^ 2005's Ophelia and 2011's Nate both formed on September 7; however, Ophelia became a tropical storm around 06:00 UTC, about 12 hours before Nate.
  10. ^ All damage figures are in United States dollars, and are not adjusted for inflation.

References

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  3. ^ Landsea, C. W. (2004). "The Atlantic hurricane database re-analysis project: Documentation for the 1851–1910 alterations and additions to the HURDAT database". In Murname, R. J.; Liu, K.-B. (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present and Future. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 177–221. ISBN 0-231-12388-4.
  4. ^ Cortright, Edgar M., ed. (1968). "Section One: Above The Atmosphere". Exploring Space With A Camera. Washington, D.C.: NASA History Office. Bibcode:1968eswc.book.....C. Retrieved December 6, 2020.
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  18. ^ Christopher W. Landsea; et al. Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). Miami, Florida: NOAA. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  19. ^ Cangialosi, John (June 30, 2024). "Hurricane Beryl Update Statement". Retrieved July 3, 2024.
  20. ^ Papin (July 1, 2024). "Hurricane Beryl Public Advisory 14". Retrieved July 3, 2024.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g U.S. NOAA Coastal Service Center – Historical Hurricane Tracks Tool
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  28. ^ a b Henson, Bob (June 23, 2023). "Unusual June Tropical Storms Bret and Cindy stir up the Atlantic". New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  29. ^ Andrew Dockery (July 2021). "Fifth named storm of the 2021 hurricane season and is now the earliest "E" named storm on record". www.wmbfnews.com. Retrieved 2021-07-01.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Martucci, Joe (August 25, 2020). "Hurricane Laura continues record hurricane season pace, here's the forecast". The Press of Atlantic City. Retrieved August 31, 2020.
  31. ^ a b Prociv, Kathryn (July 22, 2020). "Tropical Storm Gonzalo forecast to become 2020's first Atlantic hurricane of the year". NBC News. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
  32. ^ a b c Bellafiore, Sean (August 21, 2020). "Tropical Depression 14 not yet a tropical storm, could threaten Central Texas". Waco, Texas: KWTX News. Retrieved August 28, 2020.
  33. ^ a b Cappucci, Matthew (September 1, 2020). "Tropical storm Nana nears formation in Caribbean as Atlantic hurricane season stays unusually active". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 1, 2020.
  34. ^ a b "Tropical Storm Omar, Record Earliest Fifteenth Storm, Tracking Well Off the U.S. East Coast". weather.com. The Weather Channel. September 1, 2020. Retrieved September 3, 2020.
  35. ^ a b c d Erdman, Jonathan (September 7, 2020). "Tropical Storm Paulette, Record Earliest 16th Storm, Forms in Eastern Atlantic While Tropical Storm Rene is Soon to Follow". weather.com. The Weather Channel. Retrieved September 7, 2020.
  36. ^ Niles, Nancy; Hauck, Grace; Aretakis, Rachel (September 12, 2020). "Tropical Storm Sally forms as it crosses South Florida; likely to strengthen into hurricane when it reaches Gulf". USA Today Network. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
  37. ^ Masters, Jeff (September 23, 2021). "Tropical Storm Sam forms in central tropical Atlantic". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 29, 2021.
  38. ^ Marchante, Michelle; Harris, Alex (September 14, 2020). "With newly formed Tropical Storm Teddy, NHC tracking five named systems at once". The Miami Herald. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
  39. ^ Masters, Jeff (September 25, 2021). "Sam rapidly intensifies into a major category 3 hurricane". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 29, 2021.
  40. ^ Michals, Chris (September 14, 2020). "Sally takes aim at the Gulf Coast; only one name left for hurricane season". wsls.com. Roanoke, Virginia: WSLS-TV. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
  41. ^ Masters, Jeff; Henson, Bob (September 30, 2021). "Tropical Storm Victor joins category 4 Hurricane Sam in the Atlantic". New Haven Connecticut: Yale Climate Connections. Retrieved September 30, 2021.
  42. ^ a b Borenstein, Seth (September 18, 2020). "Running out of storm names, Atlantic season goes Greek". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Chattanooga, Tennessee. AP. Retrieved October 1, 2020.
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