Cizhou ware

The wares are generally sturdy, and often rather large. Many shapes relate to wine-drinking, and ceramic pillows or head-rests are common.^[7] The clay bodies fire to a range of off-white, grey and brown shades, varying with location. The main methods of forming used are wheel-throwing and forming from slabs, with moulds sometimes used, mainly for head-rests.^[8] Generally a coating of white or, less often, black or brown slip was applied all over to hide this not very attractive body. After decoration a glaze was applied, normally this was transparent but, especially in later periods, green and turquoise glazes were used, including over slip-painting. Additionally, the same kilns often produced wares glazed in black and brown, and less decorated. Conventionally, and perhaps rather artificially, these are not usually classified as Cizhou wares (unless highly decorated) but by such terms as "Northern black wares", or "Northern dark wares".^[9] As well as underglaze slip-painting, overglaze enamelling was sometimes used, for the first time in China.^[10]

A very wide range of decorative techniques are used, often in conjunction. The most common and characteristic technique is painting in black or brown slip on top of a layer of white slip. Designs are also formed by a variety of slip-cutting or sgraffito techniques where slip is scratched or cut away to reveal another slip or the body beneath; a vase with carved peony scrolls in Indianapolis uses this technique. Other techniques include the shallow carving common on other Song ceramics such as Ding ware and celadon or greenwares, incising, stamping, and working with a roulette or tool with a ridged wheel.^[11] In earlier sgraffito pieces backgrounds are often patterned by "ring-matting", impressing the end of a piece of bamboo through the slip to leave a pattern of circles, a style borrowed from metalwork. Comb-like instruments were also used to make patterns of parallel lines.^[12]

The subject matter of the decoration is equally varied, and draws from earlier or contemporary work in several media, including pottery, metalwork and Chinese painting, especially the distinct genre of bird-and-flower painting. Flowers, especially the paeony, mallow and lotus, have elegant petals and tendrils arranged in scrolling patterns. Fish and birds are common, often painted with great freedom and life. Human figures may be used, and especially in the large flat space offered by the top of a head-rest, there are sometimes several together, set in a landscape and perhaps showing a scene from literature or legend.^[13] There are often painted inscriptions, typically related to drinking on appropriate pieces, wishing good sleep on head-rests, or short poems.^[14] More expensive wares are sometimes imitated, including white Ding ware,^[15] and in the black wares the special glazing effects of Jian ware tea bowls.^[16]

Some types of object, including head-rests, are often stamped underneath or inscribed with the name of the potter, or an indication of the date or source of the object, which is generally rare in Chinese pottery.^[17] In particular many head-rests, mostly of the 12–13th centuries but perhaps extending from the mid-11th to mid-14th centuries, are stamped with the name of the Zhang (张家) family workshop from Henan.^[18] These include the slightly curved box type with flat surfaces for painting,^[19] Other kilns made fancy moulded shapes with a flat panel for the head; tigers, presumably for male customers, are common.^[20]

Most decoration uses two contrasting colours, but some pieces are polychrome, especially from later periods. Two techniques were used: the first was lead-based glaze colours, in a continuation of Tang dynasty sancai techniques,^[21] and the second overglaze enamelling, developed in Cizhou kilns some time around 1200,^[22] and seen for the first time on Chinese pottery. This was used on Persian mina'i ware from 1180 or earlier;^[23] on metal vitreous enamel had been used around the Mediterranean and in Europe since ancient times.^[24] The earliest dated example, in Tokyo, is from 1201.^[25]

The main enamel colours are red, yellow and green, and the pieces small bowls, head-rests and small figurines, many probably toys or dolls, but some religious figures and perhaps figures made for tombs, as in earlier periods representing servants for the afterlife. There are also simple vessels with (typically) floral designs in a few colours on a cream background.^[26] Overglaze enamelling required a first firing of the glazed body at about 1200°C or more,^[27] followed by a further firing at a lower temperature of about 800°C after the glaze or lead-based enamels had been applied; these would not have given the right colours at a high temperature.^[28]

•  
  Meiping vase with slip-painted peony foliage, Jin dynasty, 12th or 13th century
•  
  Ming meiping with slip-painted crane under turquoise glaze
•  
  floral design cut into the slip, 14th century
•  
  13th-century jar with lid, described as "with cream glaze and wax-resist and carved black overglaze decoration"
•  
  Yuan dynasty figures, probably dolls.
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  Zhang family stamp (next to later museum number) on a headrest formed as a tiger
•  
  Headrest mould-formed as a girl, Jin dynasty, with overglaze enamels.
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  Black vase, with white slip in between the ribs

Although strongly based in the north, some Cizhou-type wares were produced in the south, and the products were very widely distributed across China, even if little was exported.^[29] Apparently largely free from the dictates of court or aristocratic taste,^[30] the producers were free to experiment with their great variety of techniques and subjects and motifs for decoration. They and their clientele were also less affected by political changes than their equivalents for high-status wares, allowing a development of the wares over many centuries and dynasties with relatively little disruption.^[31]

In their emphasis on painted decoration, whether under or over the glaze, Cizhou ware anticipated the style that would, eventually, come to dominate Chinese ceramics, even those for the court. Eventually this would mainly use the Cizhou invention of overglaze enamelling. Another Cizhou development (if one ignores the precedent of Ancient Greek vase painting) that would become part of general Chinese, and world, ceramics was decorating tall vessels in wide bands of the main decoration, surrounded by smaller bands of repetitive motifs, or in dishes similar circular borders.^[32]

It has been suggested that the movement of potters from Cizhou kilns to the south, especially at the start of the Yuan dynasty, was part of this influence. This may have been either or both by the movement of artisans directly to Jingdezhen, or to kilns making Jizhou ware, which in turn influenced Jingdezhen. The Mongols often forced artists to move locations, and this period saw the beginning of underglaze painted blue and white porcelain from Jingdezhen.^[33]

• "Grove": Oxford Art Online, "China, §VIII, 3: Ceramics: Historical development", various authors
• Medley, Margaret, The Chinese Potter: A Practical History of Chinese Ceramics, 3rd edition, 1989, Phaidon, ISBN 071482593X
• Needham, Joseph (ed), Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5, Part 12, 2004, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521838339, 9780521838337, google books
• Osborne, Harold (ed), The Oxford Companion to the Decorative Arts, 1975, OUP, ISBN 0198661134
• Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press, ISBN 9780714124469
• Vainker, S.J., Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, 1991, British Museum Press, 9780714114705
• Valenstein, S. (1998). A handbook of Chinese ceramics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149, fully available online
• Watson, Oliver, "Pottery under the Mongols" in Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan, 2012, BRILL, Ed. Linda Komaroff, ISBN 9004243402, 9789004243408, google books

• Yutaka Mino, Freedom of Clay and Brush Through Seven Centuries in Northern China: Tz'u-chou Type Wares, 960–1600 AD, 1980, Indianapolis University Press