Bafuliiru Chiefdom

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is situated in the eastern part of the DRC, specifically within the Uvira Territory of the South Kivu Province. With an area of 1,514.270 km², it is the largest among all the chiefdoms in Uvira Territory and appears to constitute a separate territory. The region boasts a diverse range of terrains. It includes parts of the eastern section of the Albertine Rift, which is a branch of the East African Rift System. The area is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountains forming a significant part of the landscape. The chiefdom extends to the eastern shores of Lake Tanganyika, one of the African Great Lakes. In addition, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom is surrounded by lush forests, including portions of the Itombwe Massif, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The vegetation in the area is primarily characterized by tropical rainforests and savannah grasslands.^[6][7][8]

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom exhibits diverse hydrographic features, including plains, plateaus, and lakes.^[2] The easternmost part of the community is primarily characterized by expansive plains that encompass regions such as Luvungi, Lubarika, Katogota, Kiliba, Runingu, and Kawizi. These areas form an integral part of the Ruzizi Plain, situated between Mitumba mountain chain and the Ruzizi River. The elevation in this area ranges from 773 to 1000 meters above sea level. The Ruzizi Plain spans from 2°42' to 3°24' south latitude and from 29° to 29°22' east longitude, covering a total area of 3,031 km². Within this expanse, approximately 800 km² lies within the DRC, while the remaining portion is divided between Burundi and Rwanda.^[9][10][6]

The chiefdom is further characterized by two distinct plateaus: the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau. The Middle Plateau extends between Luvungi and Mulenge, with a gradual variation in elevation from 100 meters to 1800 meters. Within this plateau, notable villages include Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Bwesho, Katala and Mulenge. The Middle Plateau provides a favorable environment for cultivating crops such as cassava, coffee, bananas, beans, and maize in various locations. The High Plateau, which forms part of the Mitumba chain, boasts the highest peaks, surpassing 3,000 meters above sea level. The High Plateau serves as a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and Elila rivers, as well as numerous torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika.^[11][12][6]

The Bafuliru Chiefdom is characterized by a tropical climate, specifically a tropical rainforest climate or equatorial climate. Situated in the eastern part of the DRC, the chiefdom experiences warm temperatures throughout the year with minimal fluctuations. Average temperatures range from 30.5 to 35.5 degrees Celsius (86 to 95 degrees Fahrenheit), providing a consistently warm environment. Precipitation is abundant in the Bafuliru Chiefdom, as it receives a substantial amount of rainfall annually. Rainfall is evenly distributed across the seasons, and there is no distinct dry period. The average annual precipitation ranges from 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters (59 to 79 inches).^[13][6]

The area includes sections of the Mitumba Mountains, characterized by ancient metamorphic and igneous rocks. Metamorphic rocks have undergone significant changes due to high temperatures and pressure, while igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten material. The Bafuliru Chiefdom also encompasses regions near Lake Tanganyika. The lake resides in an East African Rift Valley.^[13][6]

Bafuliiru Chiefdom emerged as a small dominion created by the colonial administration in response to its sparsely populated region in 1921 in Luvungi. It was officially established in 1928 through an edict promulgated on 18 August under the aegis of the C.D.D. (Chef de Division des Districts) of the Kivu Region. Nevertheless, determining the precise boundaries of the chiefdom posed several challenges due to its expansive size. According to records from the Belgian Congo colonial administration, the geographical limits of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom were defined on 19 March 1933:^[14][13][15]

• To the east: The Ruzizi River up to its confluence with the Luvubu, then from the Luvubu to Kalinda. From Kalinda, the boundary follows the mountain range leading to Ravine Mize, and from there, it follows the Costermansville Road (Bukavu) to Kawizi, including the Kanomo River. The boundary extends to the mouth of the Kanomo River where it meets the great Musondjo.
• To the south: From the confluence of Musondjo and Kamono, a line is drawn towards Mount Ngongwa, then from the source of the small Musondjo to its mouth where it joins the big Musondjo. The boundary continues along the great Musondjo until it meets the Lwindi River.
• To the west: From Lwindi, the boundary extends to the foot of Mount Lutandala, encompassing the valley between the Matiazo and Bihimvu Mountains. It then follows the course of the Kalongofya stream parallel to Mount Kaya. From there, it proceeds along the eastern slope of Mount Kaya to the source of the Kinwalangazi River, and finally, it follows the Kinwalangazi River until its confluence with the Luvubu. The boundary extends from the source of the Luvubu River to the source of the Kabundji River, which eventually joins the Luvimbi River at its mouth.^[13]

These delineations helped establish the territorial extent of the Bafuliru Chiefdom within the region.^[13]

The Bafuliru Chiefdom is divided into groupements (groupings), each governed by a customary chief (chef de groupement). The groupements are established to facilitate local governance, service delivery, and community organization. These groupements are further subdivided into villages, each of which is also governed by a customary chief.^[5][16]

The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages:^[6]

The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages:

The Runingu groupement consists of the following villages:

The Itara/Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages:

The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages:

Over the last three decades, the Bafuliiru Chiefdom has encountered security challenges, with a history of conflicts often triggered by political, ethnic, and resource-driven tensions.^[17][18] Such conflicts have caused violent outbreaks and the forced movement of civilians in impacted regions.^[2][19][20]

The chiefdom has been affected by spillover effects from conflicts in neighboring countries during the First and Second Congo Wars. These conflicts turned the area into a major battleground for various armed groups, leading to widespread violence, displacement, and immense suffering for the local population. The region witnessed the presence of formidable forces such as the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB), Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), and numerous Mai-Mai groups, each pursuing their own agendas and alliances.^[17][21][22]

During the First Congo War, rival factions clashed for control. The AFDL, backed by Rwanda and Uganda, confronted Mobutu Sese Seko's government forces. According to Amnesty International, the AFDL was responsible for various human rights violations during its campaign to overthrow Mobutu.^[23] On 6 October 1996, a massacre occurred at Lemera Hospital, where the AFDL and a Banyamulenge-led force killed 37 people, among them Hutu refugees, Zairean soldiers, and Fuliiru civilians. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo 1993-2003 UN Mapping Report, the victims were killed in their beds by "gunshots or bayonets".^[24][25] In subsequent days and weeks, the violence continued to escalate. On 13–14 October 1996, the AFDL and Banyamulenge armed units killed refugees in the Runingu camp.^[24] Similarly, on 20 October 1996, AFDL/RPA/FAB units targeted Burundian and Rwandan Hutu refugees in the Luvungi groupement, which resulted in significant casualties. In Katala village, located in the middle plateau of Bafuliiru Chiefdom, they captured and killed refugees who were attempting to flee at close range. Local people were then forced to bury the bodies in mass graves.^[24]

On the same day, 20 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units killed an unidentified number of Hutu refugees, including approximately twenty in the camp's hospital in Kanganiro camp in Luvungi groupement.^[24] Parenthetically, the units also killed an unknown number of Hutu refugees and Zairean civilians who were fleeing towards Burundi in Rubenga village in Uvira Territory. In Kakumbukumbu village, located five kilometers from Lubarika camp, soldiers burned thirty refugees alive in a house.^[24] On 21 October 1996, AFDL/APR/FAB units butchered around 370 refugees in Luberizi and Mutarule.^[24] By May 1997, the conflict resulted in the ousting of Mobutu and marked the beginning of a tumultuous period for the region. Laurent-Désiré Kabila declared himself the president of the DRC and renamed the country the "Democratic Republic of the Congo".^[22]

In the Second Congo War, which began in 1998, the Bafuliru Chiefdom once again became a battleground for rival factions and armed groups vying for power and control. The conflict witnessed various armed groups, including the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD), Rally for Congolese Democracy–Goma (RCD-Goma) and multiple Mai-Mai groups, clashing in the region.^[26][27]

Numerous areas within the Bafuliru Chiefdom experienced targeted attacks on civilians. On 6 August 1998, members of RCD-Goma killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule. Concurrently, and in the proximate vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe villages, RCD-Goma and RPA operatives killed 15 civilians.^[28] In the village of Katogota on 14 May 2000, RCD-Goma carried out a massacre that claimed the lives of over 300 people.^{[29][30][31][32]}

The conflict came to an end with the signing of the Global and Inclusive Agreement in 2002, followed by the establishment of a transitional government. However, the effects of the wars continue to linger, with communities grappling with the long-lasting consequences of violence, displacement, and trauma.^{[33][27][34][35]}

Subsistence agriculture is the chiefdom's primary economic activity, with the surrounding fertile lands supporting the cultivation of a variety of crops such as cassava, beans, peanuts, coffee, banana, rice, and maize.^[6] The region also grows sorghum, wheat, and soybeans, along with various fruit trees, including orange, mango, guava, and avocado.^[36]

Cassava is among the most prominent agricultural commodities in the chiefdom areas of Ruzizi Plain and the Bafuliru Chiefdom. According to Bafuliiru folklore, cassava was introduced to the region during their migration from Lwindi Chiefdom, and it continues to serve as a vital food source.^[6] Banana cultivation is widespread throughout the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, serving both as a food crop and a raw material for producing Kasigisi, a fermented beverage made from bananas and sorghum.^[6]

Rice production, specifically varieties such as IR5, L9, and IRON 282, is also prominent, although it is more often cultivated as a cash crop.^[6] Rice is primarily grown at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and the Cenre Developpement Communautaire (CDC) in Kiringye.^{[6][37][38][39]} Similarly, beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera, covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge, with large portions marketed in Bukavu and Uvira, as well as exported to neighboring countries like Burundi and Rwanda.^[6] Maize is widely cultivated in the Ruzizi Plain and the Hauts Plateaux, where it serves as a primary food source.^[6] Peanuts, primarily grown in Luvungi and Lubarika, are consumed locally and exported to Rwanda and Burundi, with some also sold in Bukavu.^[6]

The Bafuliiru Chiefdom is also notable for its coffee production, with two species cultivated: Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora.^[6] The more common arabica species is grown in areas such as Ndolera, Buheba, Lemera, Katala, and Mugule, and is a significant export product, particularly to Burundi.^[6]

• Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• List of territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
• Lwindi Chiefdom