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{{Short description|Gallo-Romance language of Switzerland}}
{{distinguish|text=[[languages of the Roman Empire]], the [[Romanesco dialect|Roman dialect]], or the [[Franco-Provençal|Romand]], [[Romang language|Romang]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], or [[Romani language|Romani]] languages}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Romansh
| nativename       = {{lang|rm|romontsch, rumantsch,<br /> rumauntsch, rumàntsch}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA-rm|ʁoˈmɔntʃ||Roh-Sursilvan-Romontsch.ogg}}<br />{{IPA-rm|rʊˈmantʃ||Roh-vallader-rumantsch.ogg}}<br />{{IPA-rm|rʊˈmɛntʃ||Roh-putèr-rumauntsch.ogg}}<br />{{IPA-rm|rʊˈmaʊ̯ntʃ|}}<br />{{IPA-rm|rəˈmœntʃ|}}
| ethnicity        = [[Romansh people|Romansh]]
| states           = [[Switzerland]]
| region           = [[Grisons]] (Graubünden)
| speakers         = Main language: {{sigfig|40,074|1}}
| date             = 2019
| ref              = <ref name="BAFS">{{cite web |last1=Bundesamt für Statistik |title=Hauptsprachen in der Schweiz - 2019 |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.15384655.html |website=Bundesamt für Statistik |date=25 January 2021 |access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref>
| speakers2        = Regular speakers: {{sigfig|60000|1}} (2000){{sfn|Furer|2005}}
| ietf             = {{wikidata|property|references|P305}}
| iso1             = {{wikidata|property|P218}}
| iso2             = {{wikidata|property|P219}}
| iso3             = {{wikidata|property|P220}}
| glotto           = {{wikidata|property|P1394}}
| glottorefname    = Romansh
| lingua           = {{wikidata|property|references|P1396}}
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam1             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q19860}}
| fam2             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q131848}}
| fam3             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q33478}}
| fam4             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q19814}}
| fam5             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q112608}}
| fam6             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q2714388}}
| fam7             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q500394}}
| fam8             = {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q515593}} or {{wikidata|label|short|linked|Q97646466}}<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/roma1326 |title=Romansh |date=2022-05-24 |access-date=2022-10-07 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007135944/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/roma1326 |archive-date=2022-10-07 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian}}</ref>
| dia1             = [[Sursilvan]]
**[[Tuatschin dialect (Romansh)|Tuatschin]]
| dia2             = [[Vallader dialect|Vallader]]
**[[Jauer dialect (Romansh)|Jauer]]
| dia3             = [[Putèr]]
| dia4             = [[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]]
| dia5             = [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]
| dia6             = 
| dia7             = 
| stand1           = [[Sursilvan]]
| stand2           = [[Vallader dialect|Vallader]]
| stand3           = [[Putèr]]
| stand4           = [[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]]
| stand5           = [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]
| stand6           = [[#Rumantsch Grischun|Rumantsch Grischun]]
| script           = Latin
| nation           = {{flag|Switzerland}}
| image            = Romansh language composite.png
| imagecaption     = From top left to bottom right: Sutsilvan inscription on a house in [[Andeer]], Sursilvan house inscription in [[Sagogn]], Rumantsch Grischun sign in the [[Swiss National Park]], Vallader [[Sgraffito]] in [[Guarda, Switzerland|Guarda]].
| map              = English-language version of Linguistic map of Switzerland.png
| mapcaption       = {{legend|#7c8b6d|The traditional Romansh-speaking parts of Switzerland}}
| map2             = Lang Status 60-DE.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Romansh is classified as Definitely Endangered by the [[UNESCO]] [[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]}}}}
| notice           = IPA
}}

'''Romansh''' ({{IPAc-en|r|oʊ|ˈ|m|æ|n|ʃ|,_|r|oʊ|ˈ|m|ɑː|n|ʃ}} {{respell|roh|MA(H)NSH}}; sometimes also spelled '''Romansch''' and '''Rumantsch'''){{notetag|{{bulleted list |[[Sursilvan]]: {{lang|rm-sursilv|romontsch}} {{IPA-rm|ʁoˈmɔntʃ||Roh-Sursilvan-Romontsch.ogg}} |[[Vallader dialect|Vallader]], [[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]], and [[#Rumantsch Grischun|Rumantsch Grischun]]: {{lang|rm|rumantsch}} {{IPA-rm|rʊˈmantʃ||Roh-vallader-rumantsch.ogg}} |[[Putèr]]: {{lang|rm-puter|rumauntsch}} {{IPA-rm|rʊˈmɛntʃ||Roh-putèr-rumauntsch.ogg}} |[[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]: {{lang|rm-sutsilv|rumàntsch}} {{IPA-rm|rʊˈmantʃ|}}, {{IPA-rm|rʊˈmaʊ̯ntʃ|}}, {{IPA-all|rəˈmœntʃ|}} |[[Jauer dialect (Romansh)|Jauer]]: {{IPA-rm|rʊˈmaʊ̯ntʃ|}}}}}} is a [[Gallo-Romance]] and/or [[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto-Romance language]] spoken predominantly in the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of the [[Grisons]] (Graubünden). Romansh has been recognized as a national [[Languages of Switzerland|language of Switzerland]] since 1938, and as an official language in correspondence with Romansh-speaking citizens since 1996, along with [[Swiss Standard German|German]], [[Swiss French|French]], and [[Swiss Italian|Italian]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 August 2013 |title=Amtssprachen und Landessprachen der Schweiz |url=https://www.nb.admin.ch/dienstleistungen/swissinfodesk/03034/03232/04411/index.html?lang=en |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413152357/https://www.nb.admin.ch/dienstleistungen/swissinfodesk/03034/03232/04411/index.html?lang=en |archive-date=13 April 2016 |access-date=2019-07-11 |publisher=Swiss National Library (NL) |location=Berne, Switzerland |language=de |type=official site}}</ref> It also has [[Official language|official status]] in the canton of the Grisons alongside German and Italian and is used as the medium of instruction in schools in Romansh-speaking areas. It is sometimes grouped by linguists with [[Ladin language|Ladin]] and [[Friulian language|Friulian]] as the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]], though this is disputed.

Romansh is one of the [[descendant language]]s of the [[Vulgar Latin|spoken Latin language]] of the [[Roman Empire]], which by the 5th century AD replaced the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] and [[Rhaetian language|Raetic]] languages previously spoken in the area. Romansh retains a small number of words from these languages. Romansh has also been strongly influenced by German in vocabulary and [[Morphology (linguistics)#Paradigms and morphosyntax|morphosyntax]]. The language gradually retreated to its current area over the centuries, being replaced in other areas by [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]] dialects. The earliest writing identified as Romansh dates from the 10th or 11th century, although major works did not appear until the 16th century, when several regional written varieties began to develop. During the 19th century the area where the language was spoken declined due to the [[industrialization]] of Switzerland, but the Romansh speakers had a literary revival and started a [[Language revitalization|language movement dedicated to halting the decline of their language]].<ref name="swissinfo.ch">{{cite news |last=Slater |first=Julia |date=5 August 2013 |title=Switzerland's fourth language under pressure |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/culture/fighting-for-survival_switzerland-s-fourth-language-under-pressure/36273340 |url-status=live |work=[[Swissinfo]] |location=[[Bern]] |publisher=[[SRG SSR]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322031219/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/culture/fighting-for-survival_switzerland-s-fourth-language-under-pressure/36273340 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |access-date=20 September 2022}}<br />{{cite news |last=Leybold-Johnson |first=Isobel |date=8 August 2006 |title=Romansh faces a silent future |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/romansh-faces-a-silent-future/41076 |url-status=live |work=[[Swissinfo]] |location=[[Bern]] |publisher=[[SRG SSR]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220070308/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/romansh-faces-a-silent-future/41076 |archive-date=20 February 2022 |access-date=20 September 2022}}</ref>

In the 2000 Swiss census, 35,095 people (of whom 27,038 live in the canton of the [[Grisons]]) indicated Romansh as the language of "best command", and 61,815 as a "regularly spoken" language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Linguistic geography |url=http://www.liarumantscha.ch/Linguistic_geography.352.0.html?&L=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203012932/http://www.liarumantscha.ch/Linguistic_geography.352.0.html?&L=2 |archive-date=December 3, 2007 |publisher=Lia Rumantscha}}</ref> In 2010, Switzerland switched to a yearly system of assessment that uses a combination of [[Municipalities of Switzerland|municipal]] citizen records and a limited number of surveys.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/news/02.html |website=Swiss Federal Statistical Office |title=Die neue Volkszählung – Das System |trans-title=The new census - The system |language=de,fr |access-date=14 August 2014}}</ref> In 2019, there were 40,074 Swiss residents who primarily spoke Romansh;<ref name="BAFS">{{cite web |last1=Bundesamt für Statistik |title=Hauptsprachen in der Schweiz - 2019 |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.15384655.html |website=Bundesamt für Statistik |date=25 January 2021 |access-date=23 May 2021}}</ref> in 2017, 28,698 inhabitants of the canton of the Grisons (14.7% of the population) used it as their main language.<ref name="BFSCH">{{Cite web |date=21 February 2019 |title=Ständige Wohnbevölkerung nach Hauptsprachen in der Schweiz |trans-title=Permanent resident population by main language in Switzerland |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.7466556.html |access-date=2019-07-11 |publisher=Federal Statistical Office |location=Neuchâtel, Switzerland |language=de,fr,it |type=official site |format=XLS}}</ref><ref name="BFSKt">{{Cite web |date=21 February 2019 |title=Ständige Wohnbevölkerung nach Hauptsprachen und Kanton |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.7466554.html |access-date=2019-07-11 |publisher=Federal Statistical Office |location=Neuchâtel, Switzerland |language=de,fr,it |type=official site |format=XLS}}</ref>

Romansh is divided into five different regional dialect groups ([[Sursilvan]], [[Vallader dialect|Vallader]], [[Putèr]], [[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]], and [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]), each with its own standardized written language. In addition, a pan-regional variety called [[#Rumantsch Grischun|Rumantsch Grischun]] was introduced in 1982, which is controversial among Romansh speakers.<ref>{{Cite web |last=swissinfo.ch |first=Terence MacNamee |title=Romansh speakers rebel against standard language |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/romansh-speakers-rebel-against-standard-language/29637410 |access-date=2020-11-08 |website=SWI swissinfo.ch |date=6 March 2011 |language=en}}</ref>

== Linguistic classification ==
Romansh is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] descending from [[Vulgar Latin]], the [[Languages of the Roman Empire|spoken language of the Roman Empire]]. Among the Romance languages, Romansh stands out because of its peripheral location.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kraas |first=Frauke |date=1996 |title=The Decline of Ethno-Diversity in High Mountain Regions: The Spatial Development of the Rhaetoromansch Minority in Grisons, Switzerland |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3673894 |journal=Mountain Research and Development |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=41–50 |doi=10.2307/3673894 |jstor=3673894 |issn=0276-4741}}</ref> This has resulted in several archaic features. Another distinguishing feature is the centuries-long [[language contact]] with [[German language|German]], which is most noticeable in the vocabulary and to a lesser extent the syntax of Romansh. Romansh belongs to the [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]] branch of the Romance languages, which includes languages such as [[French language|French]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and [[Lombard language|Lombard]]. The main feature placing Romansh within the Gallo-Romance languages is the [[I-mutation|fronting]] of Latin {{IPAslink|u}} to {{IPAblink|y}} or {{IPAblink|i}}, as seen in Latin {{lang|la|muru(m)}} "wall", which is {{Audio|Roh-putèr-mür.ogg|''mür''}} or {{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-mir.ogg|''mir''}} in Romansh.

The main features distinguishing Romansh from the [[Gallo-Italic languages]] to the south, and placing it closer to [[Ladin language|Ladin]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]] and [[Franco-Provencal]], are:
* [[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalization]] of Latin K and G in front of A, as in Latin {{lang|la|canem}} "dog", which is {{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-tgaun.ogg|''tgaun''}} in [[Sursilvan]], ''tgang'' in [[Surmiran dialect|Surmiran]], and {{Audio|Roh-putèr-chaun.ogg|''chaun''}} in [[Putèr]] and [[Vallader dialect|Vallader]] (the difference between {{angle bracket|tg}} and {{angle bracket|ch}} being purely orthographic, as both represent /tɕ/); Lombard {{lang|lmo|can}}, French {{lang|fr|chien}}. This sound change is partially absent in some varieties of Romansh, however, especially in Sursilvan, where it may have been reversed at some point: Sursilvan {{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-casa.ogg|''casa''}} and Vallader {{Audio|Roh-vallader-chasa.ogg|''chasa''}} "house".
* Pluralisation with ''-s'' suffix, derived from the [[Latin]] [[accusative case]] (though see {{slink|Romance plurals|Origin of vocalic plurals}}), as in "{{lang|rm|buns chavals}}" "good horses" as opposed to Lombard {{lang|lmo|bon cavai}}; French {{lang|fr|bons chevaux}}, yet identical to Portuguese {{lang|pt|bons cavalos}}.
* Retention of L following {{IPA|/p b k ɡ f/}}: {{lang|rm|clav}} "key" from Latin {{lang|la|clavem}}, as opposed to Lombard {{lang|lmo|ciav}}; French {{lang|fr|clef}}.<ref>Liver in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000. pp. 215–216</ref>
Another defining feature of the Romansh language is the use of unstressed vowels. All unstressed vowels except /a/ disappeared.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beninca |first1=Paola |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zWSIAgAAQBAJ |title=The Rhaeto-Romance Languages |last2=Haiman |first2=John |date=2005-12-20 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9781134965489 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:Rhaeto-Romance languages.png|thumb|left|The three proposed Rhaeto-Romance languages: Romansh, [[Ladin language|Ladin]], and [[Friulian language|Friulan]]]]
Whether or not Romansh, [[Friulian language|Friulan]], and [[Ladin language|Ladin]] should compose a separate "[[Rhaeto-Romance languages|Rhaeto-Romance]]" subgroup within Gallo-Romance is an unresolved issue, known as the {{lang|it|[[Questione Ladina]]}}. Some linguists posit that these languages are descended from a common language, which was fractured geographically through the spread of German and Italian. The Italian linguist [[Graziadio Isaia Ascoli]] first made the claim in 1873.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=16}} The other position holds that any similarities between these three languages can be explained through their relative geographic isolation, which shielded them from certain linguistic changes. By contrast, the Gallo-Italic varieties of [[Northern Italy]] were more open to linguistic influences from the [[Southern Italy|South]]. Linguists who take this position often point out that the similarities between the languages are comparatively few.{{sfn|Liver|1999|pp=23–24}} This position was first introduced by the Italian dialectologist [[Carlo Battisti]].

This linguistic dispute became politically relevant for the [[Italian irredentism|Italian irredentist movement]]. Italian nationalists interpreted Battisti's hypothesis as implying that Romansh, Friulan, and Ladin were not separate Romance languages but rather [[Languages of Italy|Italian dialects]]. They used this hypothesis as an argument to claim the territories for Italy where these languages were spoken.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=18}} From a [[Sociolinguistics|sociolinguistic]] perspective, however, this question is largely irrelevant. The speakers of Romansh have always identified as speaking a language distinct from both Italian and other Romance varieties.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=22}} Furthermore, unlike Friulian, Ladin, or [[Lombard language|Lombard]], Romansh is located north of the German-Italian linguistic border, and German has influenced the language much more than Italian has.

==Dialects==
[[File:Languages and dialects of Grisons.png|thumb|Historical distribution of the dialects of Romansh, German, and Italian in the [[Grisons]]. So-called "Italian dialects" are in fact dialects of Lombard, and more similar to Romansh than to Italian:<br />
{{Legend|#ED1C24|Sursilvan}}
{{Legend|#FF8080|Tuatschin}}
{{Legend|#800040|Sutsilvan}}
{{Legend|#8000FF|Surmiran}}
{{Legend|#0080FF|Putèr}}
{{Legend|#0000FF|Vallader}}
{{Legend|#000064|Jauer}}|405x405px]]
{{anchor|idioms}}Romansh comprises a group of closely related [[dialect]]s, which are most commonly divided into five different varieties, each of which has developed a standardized form. These regional standards are referred to as ''idioms'' in Romansh to distinguish them from the local vernaculars, which are referred to as ''dialects''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Widmer |first=Kuno |date=2008 |title=Entstehung der romanischen Idiome Graubündens |url=http://www.drg.ch/files/idiome_wi.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728165255/http://www.drg.ch/files/idiome_wi.pdf |archive-date=2013-07-28 |access-date=2014-04-28 |publisher=Institut dal Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun (DRG) |place=Chur}}</ref> These dialects form a [[dialect continuum]] without clear-cut divisions. Historically a continuous speech area, this continuum has now been ruptured by the spread of German, so that Romansh is now geographically divided into at least two non-adjacent parts.

#''[[Sursilvan]]'' (Sursilvan: {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-Sursilvan-Sursilvan.ogg|''sursilvan''}}; derived from the name of the [[Surselva]] region, which itself is derived from ''sur'' "above" and ''selva'' "forest") – spoken in the [[Surselva|Vorderrhein]] (Sursilvan: ''Rein Anteriur'') valley, including the [[Lumnezia]], [[Foppa (Swiss region)|Foppa]], and [[Cadi (Swiss region)|Cadi]]. It is the most widely spoken variety, with 17,897 people or 54.8% within its historical region (including [[Imboden Region|Imboden/Plaun]], where Sursilvan is written but Sutsilvan spoken, with the exception of Sursilvan-speaking [[Flims|Flims/Flem]]) naming Romansh as a habitually spoken language in the Swiss census of 2000.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=31}}
#''[[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]'' (Sutsilvan, [[Rumantsch Grischun]]: ''sutsilvan''; Vallader: ''suotsilvan''; Putèr: ''suotsilvaun''; derived from ''sut'' "below" and ''selva'' "forest") – spoken in the [[Hinterrhein (river)|Hinterrhein]] (Sutsilvan: ''Ragn Posteriur'') valley, including [[Schams|Schams/Schons]], [[Domleschg valley|Domleschg/Tumleastga]], and [[Heinzenberg GR|Heinzenberg/Mantogna]]. In [[Imboden Region|Imboden/Plaun]], with the exception of Sursilvan-speaking [[Flims|Flims/Flem]], they speak Sutsilvan but write Sursilvan. Sutsilvan is the least widely spoken Romansh variety, with 1,111 people or 15.4% within its historical area (excluding Imboden/Plaun) naming Romansh as a habitually spoken language.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=31}} It has become extinct across much of its historical area since the turn of the 20th century.
#''[[Surmiran]]'' (Surmiran: ''surmiran''; derived from ''sur'' "above" and ''meir'' "wall") – spoken in the [[Gelgia (river)|Gelgia]] and [[Albula (river)|Albula/Alvra]] valleys, including [[Surses]] and [[Sutses]]. Romansh was named by 3,038 people within the historically Surmiran-writing area (44%) as a habitually spoken language in the census of 2000.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=31}}
#''[[Putèr]]'' (Romansh: {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-putèr.ogg|''puter''}}; probably originally a nickname derived from ''put'' "porridge", meaning "porridge-eaters"{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=43}}) – spoken in the [[Upper Engadine]] (Putèr and Vallader: ''Engiadin'Ota''), as well as in the village of Brail in [[Zernez]], where they, however, ''write'' Vallader. Romansh was named by 5,497 people or 30% within the [[Upper Engadine]] and [[Bergün Filisur]] (where Putèr is written but a non-Putèr dialect is spoken) as a habitually spoken language in the census of 2000.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=31}}
#''[[Vallader]]'' (Vallader: {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-vallader.ogg|''vallader''}}; derived from ''val'' "valley") – spoken in the [[Lower Engadine]] (Vallader and Putèr: ''Engiadina Bassa''), with the exception of Putèr-speaking Brail – where they nevertheless ''write'' Vallader – and in the [[Val Müstair]]. It is the second most commonly spoken variety of Romansh, with 6,448 people in the Lower Engadine and Val Müstair (79.2%) naming Romansh as a habitually spoken language in the census of 2000.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=31}}

Aside from these five major dialects, two additional varieties are often distinguished. One is the dialect of the [[Val Müstair]], which is closely related to Vallader but often separately referred to as ''[[Jauer (Romansh)|Jauer]]'' (Romansh: ''jauer''; derived from the personal pronoun ''jau'' "I", i.e. "the ''jau''-sayers").<ref name="Curdin 1984 pp. 261, 265">Curdin & Schläpfer (1984). pp. 261, 265</ref> Less commonly distinguished is the dialect of [[Tujetsch]] and the [[Val Medel]], which is markedly different from Sursilvan and is referred to as ''[[Tuatschin language|Tuatschin]]''.<ref name="Curdin 1984 pp. 261, 265" /><ref name="Maurer">{{Cite book |vauthors=Maurer-Cecchini, P |title=A grammar of Tuatschin |date=2021 |format=pdf |doi=10.5281/zenodo.5137647 |doi-access=free |isbn=978-3-96110-318-8 |place=Berlin |publisher=Language Science Press |url=https://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/308}}</ref>

Additionally, the standardized variety [[Rumantsch Grischun]], intended for pan-regional use, was introduced in 1982. The dialect of the [[Val Bregaglia]] is usually considered a variety of [[Lombard language|Lombard]], and speakers use Italian as their written language, even though the dialect shares many features with the neighboring Putèr dialect of Romansh.<ref>{{HDS|8064|Bergell|date=15 November 2005}}</ref>

As these varieties form a continuum with small transitions from each village to the next, there is no straightforward internal grouping of the Romansh dialects. The Romansh language area can be described best as consisting of two widely divergent varieties, Sursilvan in the west and the dialects of the Engadine in the east, with Sutsilvan and Surmiran forming a transition zone between them.<ref>Curdin & Schläpfer (1984). pp. 260–165</ref> The Engadinese varieties ''Putèr'' and ''Vallader'' are often referred to as one specific variety known as ''Ladin'' (Ladin, Sursilvan, Surmiran, and [[Rumantsch Grischun]]: {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-ladin.ogg|''ladin''}}; Sutsilvan: ''ladegn''), which is not to be confused with the closely related language in Italy's [[Dolomites|Dolomite mountains]] also known as [[Ladin language|Ladin]]. Sutsilvan and Surmiran are sometimes grouped together as Central Romansh (rm. ''Grischun central''), and then grouped together with Sursilvan as "Rhenish Romansh" (in German, "Rheinischromanisch").

One feature that separates the Rhenish varieties from Ladin is the retention of the rounded front vowels {{IPAslink |y}} and {{IPAslink|ø}} (written ''ü'' and ''ö'') in Ladin, which have been unrounded in the other dialects,<ref name="Curdin & Schläpfer1984. p. 264">Curdin & Schläpfer (1984). p. 264</ref> as in Ladin {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-mür.ogg|''mür''}}, Sursilvan {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-sursilvan-mir.ogg|''mir''}}, Surmiran ''meir'' "wall" or Ladin {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chaschöl.ogg|''chaschöl''}} to Rhenish {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-sursilvan-caschiel.ogg|''caschiel''}} "cheese". Another is the development of Latin -CT-, which has developed into /tɕ/ in the Rhenish varieties as in ''détg'' "said" or ''fatg'' "did", while developing into /t/ in Ladin (''dit'' and ''fat''). A feature separating Sursilvan from Central Romansh, however, involves the extent of palatalization of Latin /k/ in front of /a/, which is rare in Sursilvan but common in the other varieties:<ref name="Curdin & Schläpfer1984. p. 264" /> Sursilvan {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-sursilvan-casa.ogg|''casa''}}, Sutsilvan ''tgea'', Surmiran ''tgesa'', Putèr {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chesa.ogg|''chesa''}}, and Vallader {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-chasa.ogg|''chasa''}} "house". Overall however, the Central Romansh varieties do not share many unique features, but rather connect Sursilvan and Ladin through a succession of numerous small differences from one village to the next.<ref>Curdin & Schläpfer (1984) pp. 264–65.</ref>{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=44}}

The dialects of Romansh are not always mutually comprehensible. Speakers of Sursilvan and Ladin, in particular, are usually unable to understand each other initially.<ref>Liver in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000 p. 219.</ref> Because speakers usually identify themselves primarily with their regional dialect, many do not take the effort to attempt to understand unfamiliar dialects, and prefer to speak [[Swiss German]] with speakers of other varieties.<ref>Curdin & Schläpfer (1984) p. 260.</ref> A common Romansh identity is not widespread outside intellectual circles, even though this has been changing among the younger generation.<ref>Jachen Curdin Arquint in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, p. 244.</ref>

== History ==

=== Origins and development until modern times ===
Romansh originates from the [[Languages of the Roman Empire|spoken Latin]] brought to the region by Roman soldiers, merchants, and officials following the [[Switzerland in the Roman era|conquest of the modern-day Grisons area by the Romans]] in 15 BCE. Before that, the inhabitants spoke [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] and [[Raetic language|Raetic]] languages, with Raetic apparently being spoken mainly in the [[Lower Engadine|Lower Engadine valley]]. Traces of these languages survive mainly in [[Toponymy|toponyms]], including village names such as [[Tschlin]], [[Scuol]], [[Savognin]], [[Glion]], [[Breil/Brigels]], [[Brienz/Brinzauls]], [[Prättigau|Purtenza]], and [[Trun, Switzerland|Trun]]. Additionally, a small number of pre-Latin words have survived in Romansh, mainly concerning animals, plants, and geological features unique to the [[Alps]], such as ''camutsch'' "[[chamois]]" and ''grava'' "[[scree]]".

[[File:Rätoromanisches Sprachgebiet im Frühmittelalter.PNG|thumb|Romansh during the [[Early Middle Ages]]<br />
{{Legend|#FF8000|lost to German and Lombard, 700–1100}}
{{Legend|#FFFF80|Romansh-speaking area, {{circa|1100}}}}]]
It is unknown how rapidly the Celtic and Raetic inhabitants were [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] following the conquest of Raetia. Some linguists assume that the area was rapidly Romanized following the Roman conquest, whereas others think that this process did not end until the 4th or 5th century, when more thoroughly Romanized Celts from farther north fled south to avoid [[Germanic invasions|invasions by Germanic tribes]].{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=74}} The process was certainly complete and the pre-Roman languages extinct by the 5th–6th century, when Raetia became part of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]].  Around 537 AD, the Ostrogoths handed over the province of [[Raetia Prima]] to the [[Frankish Empire]], which continued to have local rulers administering the so-called Duchy of [[Chur]]. However, after the death of the last [[Victorids|Victorid]] ruler, Bishop [[Tello, Bishop of Chur|Tello]], around 765 AD, [[Charlemagne]] assigned a Germanic duke to administer the region. Additionally, the [[Diocese of Chur]] was transferred by the (pre-[[Great Schism of 1054|Schism]]) Roman Catholic Church from the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|Archdiocese of Milan]] to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Mainz|Diocese of Mainz]] in 843 AD. The combined effect was a cultural reorientation towards the German-speaking north, especially as the ruling élite now comprised almost entirely speakers of German.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=78}}

At the time, Romansh was spoken over a much wider area, stretching north into the present-day cantons of [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]] and [[Canton of St. Gallen|St. Gallen]], to the [[Walensee]] in the northwest, and [[Rüthi]] and the [[Alpine Rhine Valley]] in the northeast. In the east, parts of modern-day [[Vorarlberg]] were Romansh-speaking, as were parts of [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]].  The northern areas, called Lower Raetia, became German-speaking by the 12th century;{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=76}} and by the 15th century, the Rhine Valley of St. Gallen and the areas around the Walensee were entirely German-speaking.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=78}} This language shift was a long, drawn-out process, with larger, central towns adopting German first, while the more peripheral areas around them remained Romansh-speaking longer. The shift to German was caused in particular by the influence of the local German-speaking élites and by German-speaking immigrants from the north, with the lower and rural classes retaining Romansh longer.<ref>Kraas (1992) pp. 132–34</ref>

In addition, beginning around 1270, the German-speaking [[Walser]] began settling in sparsely populated or uninhabited areas within the Romansh-speaking heartland. The Walser sometimes expanded into Romansh-speaking areas from their original settlements, which then often became German-speaking, such as [[Davos]], [[Schanfigg]], the [[Prättigau]], [[Schams]], and [[Valendas]], which became German-speaking by the 14th century.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=77}} In rare cases, these Walser settlements were eventually assimilated by their Romansh-speaking neighbors; for instance, [[Oberhalbstein]], [[Medel (Lucmagn)|Medel]], and [[Tujetsch]] in the Surselva region.<ref>Krass (1992) p. 138</ref>

[[File:La mort da Benedetg Fontana.jpg|thumb|upright=0.45|"La mort da Benedetg Fontana", a Romansh passage in a Latin chronicle by Durich Chiampel]]
The Germanization of [[Chur]] had particularly long-term consequences. Even though the city had long before ceased to be a cultural center of Romansh, the spoken language of the capital of the Diocese of Chur continued to be Romansh until the 15th century.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=76}} After a fire in 1465 which virtually destroyed the city, many German-speaking artisans who had been called in to help repair the damage settled there, causing German to become the majority language. In a chronicle written in 1571–72, Durich Chiampell mentions that Romansh was still spoken in Chur roughly a hundred years before, but had since then rapidly given way to German and was now not much appreciated by the inhabitants of the city.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=78}} Many linguists regard the loss of Chur to German as a crucial event. According to Sylvia Osswald, for example, it occurred precisely at a time when the introduction of the printing press could have led to the adoption of the Romansh dialect of the capital as a common written language for all Romansh speakers.<ref>Osswald 1988 in Kraas 1992. p. 133</ref> Other linguists such as Jachen Curdin Arquint remain skeptical of this view, however, and assume that the various Romansh-speaking regions would still have developed their own separate written standards.<ref>in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, p. 243</ref>

Instead, several regional written varieties of Romansh began appearing during the 16th century. [[Gian Travers]] wrote the first surviving work in Romansh, the ''Chianzun dalla guerra dagl Chiaste da Müs'', in the Putèr dialect. This epic poem, written in 1527, describes the [[Musso war|first Musso war]], in which Travers himself had taken part.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=95}} Travers also translated numerous biblical plays into Romansh, though only the titles survive for many of them. Another early writer, [[Giachem Bifrun]], who also wrote in Putèr, penned the first printed book in Romansh, a catechism published in 1552. In 1560 he published a translation of the [[New Testament]]: ''L'g Nuof Sainc Testamaint da nos Signer Jesu Christ''.

Two years later, in 1562, another writer from the Engadine, [[Durich Chiampel]], published the ''Cudesch da Psalms'', a collection of church songs in the Vallader dialect. These early works are generally well written and show that the authors had a large amount of Romansh vocabulary at their disposal, contrary to what one might expect of the first pieces of writing in a language. Because of this, the linguist Ricarda Liver assumes that these written works built on an earlier, pre-literature tradition of using Romansh in administrative and legal situations, of which no evidence survives.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=101}} In their prefaces, the authors themselves often mention the novelty of writing Romansh, and discuss an apparently common prejudice that Romansh was a language that could not be written.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=105}}
[[File:Igl ver sulaz.JPG|thumb|upright=0.45|Front page of ''Ilg Vêr Sulaz da pievel giuvan'']]

The first writing in the Sursilvan and Sutsilvan dialects appears in the 17th century. As in the Engadine, these early works usually focused on religious themes, in particular the struggles between Protestants and Counter-Reformers. [[Daniel Bonifaci]] produced the first surviving work in this category, the catechism ''Curt mussameint dels principals punctgs della Christianevla Religiun'', published in 1601 in the Sutsilvan dialect. A second edition, published in 1615, is closer to Sursilvan, however, and writings in Sutsilvan do not appear again until the 20th century. In 1611, {{lang|rm|Igl Vêr Sulaz da pievel giuvan}} ("The true joys of young people"), a series of religious instructions for Protestant youths, was published by [[Steffan Gabriel]]. Four years later, in 1615, a Catholic catechism, ''Curt Mussament'', was published in response, written by [[Gion Antoni Calvenzano]]. The first translation of the New Testament into Sursilvan was published in 1648 by the son of Steffan Gabriel, [[Luci Gabriel]].

The first complete translation of the Bible, the ''Bibla da Cuera'', was published between 1717 and 1719. The Sursilvan dialect thus had two separate written varieties, one used by the Protestants with its cultural center around [[Ilanz]], and a Catholic variety with the [[Disentis Abbey]] as its center. The Engadine dialect was also written in two varieties: Putèr in the Upper Valley and Vallader in the Lower Valley.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=11}} The Sutsilvan areas either used the Protestant variety of Sursilvan, or simply used German as their main written language. The Surmiran region began developing its own variety in the early 18th century, with a catechism being published in 1703, though either the Catholic variety of Sursilvan or Putèr was more commonly used there until the 20th century.<ref>Jachen Curdin Arquint in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, pp. 258–259</ref>

In the 16th century, the language border between Romansh and German largely stabilized, and it remained almost unchanged until the late 19th century.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=23}} During this period, only isolated areas became German-speaking, mainly a few villages around [[Thusis]] and the village of [[Samnaun]]. In the case of Samnaun, the inhabitants adopted the Bavarian dialect of neighboring Tyrol, making Samnaun the only municipality of Switzerland where a Bavarian dialect is spoken. The [[Vinschgau]] in South Tyrol was still Romansh-speaking in the 17th century, after which it became entirely German-speaking because of the [[Counter-Reformation]] denunciation of Romansh as a "Protestant language".<ref name="ReferenceA" />

=== Romansh during the 19th and 20th centuries ===
With the [[Act of Mediation]], the Grisons became a canton of Switzerland in 1803. The constitution of the canton dates from 1892. When the Grisons became part of Switzerland in 1803, it had a population of roughly 73,000, of whom around 36,600 were Romansh speakers—many of them monolingual—living mostly within the Romansh-speaking valleys.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=9}} The language border with German, which had mostly been stable since the 16th century, now began moving again as more and more villages shifted to German. One cause was the admission of Grisons as a Swiss canton, which brought Romansh-speakers into more frequent contact with German-speakers. Another factor was the increased power of the central government of the Grisons, which had always used German as its administrative language.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=23}} In addition, many Romansh-speakers migrated to the larger cities, which were German-speaking, while speakers of German settled in Romansh villages. Moreover, economic changes meant that the Romansh-speaking villages, which had mostly been self-sufficient, engaged in more frequent commerce with German-speaking regions. Also, improvements in the infrastructure made travel and contact with other regions much easier than it had been.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|pp=109–110}}

Finally, the rise of tourism made knowledge of German an economic necessity in many areas, while the agricultural sector, which had been a traditional domain of Romansh, became less important. All this meant that knowledge of German became more and more of a necessity for Romansh speakers and that German became more and more a part of daily life. For the most part, German was seen not as a threat but rather as an important asset for communicating outside one's home region.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=95}} The common people frequently demanded better access to learning German.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=23}} When public schools began to appear, many municipalities decided to adopt German as the medium of instruction, as in the case of Ilanz, where German became the language of schooling in 1833, when the town was still largely Romansh-speaking.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=97}}

Some people even welcomed the disappearance of Romansh, in particular among progressives. In their eyes, Romansh was an obstacle to the economic and intellectual development of the Romansh people.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=96}} For instance, the priest Heinrich Bansi from [[Ardez]] wrote in 1797: "The biggest obstacle to the moral and economical improvement of these regions is the language of the people, Ladin [...] The German language could certainly be introduced with ease into the Engadine, as soon as one could convince the people of the immense advantages of it".<ref>{{harvp|Coray|2008|p=95}}; {{lang|de|"Am meisten steht der sittlichen und ökonomischen Verbesserung dieser Gegenden die Sprache des Volkes, das Ladin entgegen...Die deutsche Sprache lässt sich gewiss leicht ins Engadin einführen, sobald man das Volk nur einmal von den daraus entspringenden grossen Vortheilen überzeugt hätte."}}</ref> Others however, saw Romansh as an economic asset, since it gave the Romansh an advantage when learning other Romance languages. In 1807, for example, the priest Mattli Conrad wrote an article listing the advantages and disadvantages of Romansh: {{Quote|The Romansh language is an immense advantage in learning so much more rapidly the languages derived from Latin of France, Italy, Spain etc, as can be seen with the Romansh youth, which travels to these countries and learns their language with ease. [...] We live in between an Italian and a German people. How practical is it, when one can learn the languages of both without effort?<ref>{{harvp|Kundert|2007|p=134}}; Original: {{lang|de|"Ist die Romansche Sprache ungemein vortheilhaft, um deste geschwinder die von der Lateinischen abstammenden Sprachen Frankreichs, Italiens, Spaniens etc. zu erlernen, wie wir an der Romanschen Jugend sehen, welche in jene Länder reiset, und ihre Sprachen sehr schnell erlernt. ... Leben wir zwischen einem Italiänischen und Deutschen Volk, wie bequem ist es nun, wenn man mit geringer Mühe die Sprachen beyder erwerben kann?"}}</ref>|Mattli Conrad – 1807}}
In response however, the editor of the newspaper added that: <blockquote>According to the testimony of experienced and vigilant language teachers, while the one who is born Romansh can easily learn to understand these languages and make himself understood in them, he has great difficulties in learning them properly, since precisely because of the similarity, he mixes them so easily with his own bastardized language. [...] in any case, the conveniences named should hold no weight against all the disadvantages that come from such an isolated and uneducated language.<ref>{{harvp|Kundert|2007|p=134}}; Original: {{lang|de|"Nach dem Zeugniß erfahrner und aufmerksamer Sprachlehrer wird es dem Romanisch Geborenen zwar leicht, jene Sprachen zu verstehen, und sich darin verständlich zu machen, aber äußerst schwer, sie richtig zu erlernen, weil er, eben wegen der Ähnlichkeit, seine Bastard-Sprache so leicht hinein mengt.[...]überhaupt aber möchten die erwähnten Erleichterungen von keinem Gewicht seyn, gegen die Nachtheile, die aus einer isolirten und ganz ungebildeten Sprache erwachsen."}}</ref></blockquote> According to Mathias Kundert, this quote is a good example of the attitude of many German-speakers towards Romansh at the time. According to Mathias Kundert, while there was never a plan to Germanize the Romansh areas of Grisons, many German-speaking groups wished that the entire canton would become German-speaking. They were careful however, to avoid any drastic measures to that extent, in order not to antagonize the influential Romansh minority.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=134}}

The decline of Romansh over the 20th century can be seen through the results of the Swiss censuses. The decline in percentages is only partially due to the Germanization of Romansh areas, since the Romansh-speaking valleys always had a lower overall population growth than other parts of the canton.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=21}}
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Number of Romansh speakers in the Grisons 1803–1980{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=86}}
! year
! Romansh <br/> (absolute number)
! Romansh %
! German %
! Italian %
|-
|1803
|36,700
|{{c.|50%}}
|{{c.|36%}}
|{{c.|14%}}
|-
|1850
|42,439
|47.2%
|39.5%
|13.3%
|-
|1880
|37,794
|39.8%
|46.0%
|13.7%
|-
|1900
|36,472
|34.9%
|46.7%
|16.8%
|-
|1920
|39,127
|32.7%
|51.2%
|14.8%
|-
|1941
|40,187
|31.3%
|54.9%
|12.8%
|-
|1960
|38,414
|26.1%
|56.7%
|16.1%
|-
|1980
|36,017
|21.9%
|59.9%
|13.5%
|}
Starting in the mid-19th century however, a revival movement began, often called the "Rhaeto-Romansh renaissance". This movement involved an increased cultural activity, as well as the foundation of several organizations dedicated to protecting the Romansh language. In 1863, the first of several attempts was made to found an association for all Romansh regions, which eventually led to the foundation of the {{lang|it|Società Retorumantscha}} in 1885.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=82}} In 1919, the [[Lia Rumantscha]] was founded to serve as an umbrella organization for the various regional language societies. Additionally, the role of Romansh in schooling was strengthened, with the first Romansh school books being published in the 1830s and 1840s. Initially, these were merely translations of the German editions, but by the end of the 19th century teaching materials were introduced which took the local Romansh culture into consideration. Additionally, Romansh was introduced as a subject in teacher's college in 1860 and was recognized as an official language by the canton in 1880.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=82}}

[[File:Pallioppi Ortografia et Ortoepia.jpg|thumb|upright=0.68|left|Cover page of {{lang|rm|Ortografia et ortoëpia del idiom romauntsch d'Engiadin'ota}}]]
Around the same time, grammar and spelling guidelines began to be developed for the regional written dialects. One of the earliest was the {{lang|rm|Ortografia et ortoëpia del idiom romauntsch d'Engiadin'ota}} by [[Zaccaria Pallioppi]], published in 1857. For Sursilvan, a first attempt to standardize the written language was the {{lang|it|Ortografia gienerala, speculativa ramontscha}} by Baseli Carigiet, published in 1858, followed by a Sursilvan-German dictionary in 1882, and the ''Normas ortografias'' by Giachen Caspar Muoth in 1888. Neither of these guidelines managed to gather much support however. At the same time, the Canton published school books in its own variety. Sursilvan was then definitely standardized through the works of [[Gion Cahannes]], who published ''Grammatica Romontscha per Surselva e Sutselva'' in 1924, followed by ''Entruidament devart nossa ortografia'' in 1927. The Surmiran dialect had its own norms established in 1903, when the Canton agreed to finance the school book ''Codesch da lectura per las scolas primaras de Surmeir'', though a definite guideline, the ''Normas ortograficas per igl rumantsch da Surmeir'', was not published until 1939. In the meantime, the norms of Pallioppi had come under criticism in the Engadine due to the strong influence of Italian in them. This led to an orthographic reform which was concluded by 1928, when the {{lang|it|Pitschna introducziun a la nouva ortografia ladina ufficiala}} by Cristoffel Bardola was published. A separate written variety for Sutsilvan was developed in 1944 by [[Giuseppe Gangale]].

[[File:Rückgang des Bündnerromanischen Neuzeit.PNG|thumb|Loss of the Romansh-speaking majority in modern times according to the Swiss censuses<br />
{{Legend|#91FF7D|before 1860}}
{{Legend|#FFFF80|1870–1900}}
{{Legend|#FFFF00|1910–1941}}
{{Legend|#FF8000|1950–1960}}
{{Legend|#FF0080|1970}}
{{Legend|#FF0000|1980–2000}}
{{Legend|#0000FF|Romansh majority in 2000}}]]

Around 1880, the entire Romansh-speaking area still formed a continuous geographical unit. But by the end of the century, the so-called "Central-Grisons language bridge" began to disappear.<ref>Kraas (1992). p. 151</ref> From [[Thusis]], which had become German-speaking in the 16th/17th century, the [[Heinzenberg GR|Heinzenberg]] and [[Domleschg valley]]s were gradually Germanized over the next decades. Around the turn of the century, the inner Heinzenberg and [[Cazis]] became German-speaking, followed by [[Rothenbrunnen]], [[Rodels]], [[Almens]], and [[Pratval]], splitting the Romansh area into two geographically non-connected parts. In the 1920s and 1930s the rest of the villages in the valley became mainly German-speaking, sealing the split.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=79}}

In order to halt the decline of Romansh, the Lia Rumantscha began establishing Romansh day care schools, called {{lang|rm|Scoletas}}, beginning in the 1940s with the aim of reintroducing Romansh to children. Although the {{lang|rm|Scoletas}} had some success – of the ten villages where Scoletas were established, the children began speaking Romansh amongst themselves in four, with the children in four others acquiring at least some knowledge of Romansh – the program ultimately failed to preserve the language in the valley.

A key factor was the disinterest of the parents, whose main motivation for sending their children to the Scoletas appears to have been that they were looked after for a few hours and given a meal every day, rather than an interest in preserving Romansh.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=99}} The other factor was that after entering primary school, the children received a few hours a week of Romansh instruction at best. As a result, the last Scoletas were closed in the 1960s with the exception of [[Präz]], where the Scoleta remained open until 1979.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=103}}

In other areas, such as the Engadine and the Surselva, where the pressure of German was equally strong, Romansh was maintained much better and remained a commonly spoken language. According to the linguist Mathias Kundert, one important factor was the different social prestige of Romansh. In the Heinzenberg and Domleschg valleys, the elite had been German-speaking for centuries, so that German was associated with power and education, even though most people did not speak it, whereas Romansh was associated with peasant life. In the Engadine and the Surselva by contrast, the elite was itself Romansh-speaking, so that Romansh there was "not only the language spoken to children and cows, but also that of the village notable, the priest, and the teacher."{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=123}} Additionally, Romansh schools had been common for several years before German had become a necessity, so that Romansh was firmly established as a medium of education.

Likewise, in the Upper Engadine, where factors such as increased mobility and immigration by German speakers were even stronger, Romansh was more firmly established as a language of education and administration, so that the language was maintained to a much greater extent. In the Central Grisons, by contrast, German had been a central part of schooling since the beginning, and virtually all schools switched entirely to German as the language of instruction by 1900, with children in many schools being punished for speaking Romansh well into the 1930s.{{sfn|Kundert|2007|p=141}}

=== Rumantsch Grischun ===
Early attempts to create a unified written language for Romansh include the ''Romonsch fusionau'' of Gion Antoni Bühler in 1867{{sfn|Coray|2008|pp=110–117}} and the ''Interrumantsch'' by Leza Uffer in 1958. Neither was able to gain much support, and their creators were largely the only ones actively using them.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=130}} In the meantime, the Romansh movement sought to promote the different regional varieties while promoting a gradual convergence of the five varieties, called the "''avischinaziun''".{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=125}} In 1982, however, the then secretary of the Lia Rumantscha, a sociolinguist named {{ill|Bernard Cathomas|de}}, launched a project for designing a pan-regional variety. The linguist [[Heinrich Schmid]] presented to the Lia Rumantscha the same year the rules and directives for this standard language under the name Rumantsch Grischun (Rumantsch Grischun: ''rumantsch grischun'').{{sfn|Cathomas|2012|pp=37–42}} Schmid's approach consisted of creating a language as equally acceptable as possible to speakers of the different dialects, by choosing those forms which were found in a majority of the three strongest varieties: Sursilvan, Vallader, and Surmiran (Puter has more speakers than Surmiran but is spoken by a lower percentage of the population in its area). The elaboration of the new standard was endorsed by the Swiss National Fund and carried out by a team of young Romansh linguists under the guidance of Georges Darms and Anna-Alice Dazzi-Gross.{{sfn|Cathomas|2012|pp=43–45}}

The Lia Rumantscha then began introducing Rumantsch Grischun to the public, announcing that it would be chiefly introduced into domains where only German was being used, such as official forms and documents, billboards, and commercials.{{sfn|Coray|2008|pp=139–140}} In 1984, the assembly of delegates of the head organization Lia Rumantscha decided to use the new standard language when addressing all Romansh-speaking areas of the Grisons.{{sfn|Cathomas|2012|p=46}} From the very start, Rumansh Grischun has been implemented only on the basis of a decision of the particular institutions. In 1986, the federal administration began to use Rumantsch Grischun for single texts. The same year, however, several influential figures began to criticize the introduction of Rumantsch Grischun. Donat Cadruvi, at the time the president of the cantonal government, claimed that the Lia Rumantscha was trying to force the issue. Romansh writer Theo Candinas also called for a public debate on the issue, calling Rumantsch Grischun a "plague" and "death blow" to Romansh and its introduction a "Romansh Kristallnacht",{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=148}} thus launching a highly emotional and bitter debate which would continue for several years.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=148}} The following year, Candinas published another article titled ''Rubadurs Garmadis'' in which he compared the proponents of Rumantsch Grischun to Nazi thugs raiding a Romansh village and desecrating, destroying, and burning the Romansh cultural heritage.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=149}}

The proponents responded by labeling the opponents as a small group of archconservative and narrow-minded Sursilvans and [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|CVP]] politicians among other things.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=153}} The debate was characterized by a heavy use of metaphors, with opponents describing Rumantsch Grischun as a "test-tube baby" or "castrated language". They argued that it was an artificial and infertile creation which lacked a heart and soul, in contrast to the traditional dialects. On the other side, proponents called on the [[Romansh people]] to nurture the "new-born" to allow it to grow, with Romansh writer Ursicin Derungs calling Rumantsch Grischun a "''lungatg virginal''" "virgin language" that now had to be seduced and turned into a blossoming woman.{{sfn|Coray|2008|pp=387–394}}

The opposition to Rumantsch Grischun also became clear in the Swiss census of 1990, in which certain municipalities refused to distribute questionnaires in Rumantsch Grischun, requesting the German version instead.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=154}} Following a survey on the opinion of the Romansh population on the issue, the government of the Grisons decided in 1996 that Rumantsch Grischun would be used when addressing all Romansh speakers, but the regional varieties could continue to be used when addressing a single region or municipality. In schools, Rumantsch Grischun was not to replace the regional dialects but only be taught passively.

The compromise was largely accepted by both sides. A further recommendation in 1999, known as the "Haltinger concept", also proposed that the regional varieties should remain the basis of the Romansh schools, with Rumantsch Grischun being introduced in middle school and secondary school.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=183}}

The government of the Grisons then took steps to strengthen the role of Rumantsch Grischun as an official language. Since the cantonal constitution explicitly named Sursilvan and Engadinese as the languages of ballots, a referendum was launched to amend the relevant article.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=173}} In the referendum, which took place on June 10, 2001, 65% voted in favor of naming Rumantsch Grischun the only official Romansh variety of the Canton. Opponents of Rumantsch Grischun such as Renata Coray and Matthias Grünert argue, however, that if only those municipalities with at least 30% Romansh speakers were considered, the referendum would have been rejected by 51%, with an even larger margin if only those with at least 50% Romansh speakers were considered. They thus interpret the results as the Romansh minority having been overruled by the German-speaking majority of the canton.<ref>Grünert et al. (2008). p. 368</ref>

A major change in policy came in 2003, when the cantonal government proposed a number of spending cuts, including a proposal according to which new Romansh teaching materials would not be published except in Rumantsch Grischun from 2006 onwards, the logical result of which would be to abolish the regional varieties as languages of instruction. The cantonal parliament passed the measure in August 2003, even advancing the deadline to 2005. The decision was met by strong opposition, in particular in the Engadine, where teachers collected over 4,300 signatures opposing the measure,{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=195}} followed by a second petition signed by around 180 Romansh writers and cultural figures,{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=204}} including many who were supportive of Rumantsch Grischun but opposed its introduction as a language of instruction.

Opponents argued that Romansh culture and identity was transmitted through the regional varieties and not through Rumantsch Grischun and that Rumantsch Grischun would serve to weaken rather than strengthen Romansh, possibly leading to a switch to German-language schools and a swift Germanization of Romansh areas.{{sfn|Coray|2008|pp=195–196, 203}}

The cantonal government refused to debate the issue again however, instead deciding on a three-step plan in December 2004 to introduce Rumantsch Grischun as the language of schooling, allowing the municipalities to choose when they would make the switch. The decision not to publish any new teaching materials in the regional varieties was not overturned at this point, however, raising the question of what would happen in those municipalities that refused to introduce Rumantsch Grischun at all, since the language of schooling is decided by the municipalities themselves in the Grisons.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=210}}

The teachers of the Engadine in particular were outraged over the decision, but those in the Surmeir were mostly satisfied. Few opinions were heard from the Surselva, which was interpreted either as support or resignation, depending on the viewpoint of the observer.{{sfn|Coray|2008|pp=210–215}}

In 2007&ndash;2008, 23 so called "pioneer-municipalities" ([[Lantsch/Lenz]], [[Brienz/Brinzauls]], [[Tiefencastel]], [[Alvaschein]], [[Mon, Switzerland|Mon]], [[Stierva]], [[Salouf]], [[Cunter]], [[Riom-Parsonz]], [[Savognin]], [[Tinizong-Rona]], [[Mulegns]], [[Sur, Switzerland|Sur]], [[Marmorera]], [[Falera]], [[Laax]], [[Trin]], [[Müstair]], [[Santa Maria Val Müstair]], [[Valchava]], [[Fuldera]], [[Tschierv]] and [[Lü, Switzerland|Lü]]) introduced Rumantsch Grischun as the language of instruction in 1st grade, followed by an additional 11 ([[Ilanz]], [[Schnaus]], [[Flond]], [[Schluein]], [[Pitasch]], [[Riein]], [[Sevgein]], [[Castrisch]], [[Surcuolm]], [[Luven]] and [[Duvin]]) the following year and another 6 ([[Sagogn]], [[Rueun]], [[Siat]], [[Pigniu]], [[Waltensburg/Vuorz]] and [[Andiast]]) in 2009–2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Landesbericht Graubünden 2009 |trans-title=State report Graubünden 2009 |url=http://www.gr.ch/DE/publikationen/berichte/Documents/Landesbericht_2009.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924024213/http://www.gr.ch/DE/publikationen/berichte/Documents/Landesbericht_2009.pdf |archive-date=2015-09-24 |access-date=2014-02-27}}</ref> However, other municipalities, including the entire Engadine valley and most of the Surselva, continued to use their regional variety. The cantonal government aimed to introduce Rumantsch Grischun as the sole language of instruction in Romansh schools by 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-08-24 |title=Rumantsch Grischun bis 2020 an allen romanischen Schulen &#124; Schweizer Radio DRS |url=http://www.drs.ch/www/de/drs/streitpunkt-rumantsch-grischun/260253.208496.rumantsch-grischun-bis-2020-an-allen-romanischen-schulen.html |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Drs.ch }}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

[[File:Rätoromanische Schulsprachen.png|thumb|Map of the situation in September 2013<br />
{{Legend|#00A400|Municipalities that had introduced Rumantsch Grischun as the language of instruction}}
{{Legend|#FF0000|Municipalities that used a regional variety as the language of instruction}}
{{Legend|#804000|Municipalities that had introduced Rumantsch Grischun but since decided to revert to a regional variety}}]]
In early 2011, however, a group of opponents in the Surselva and the Engadine founded the association [[Pro Idioms]], demanding the overturning of the government decision of 2003 and launching numerous local initiatives to return to the regional varieties as the language of instruction. In April 2011, [[Riein]] became the first municipality to vote to return to teaching in Sursilvan,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riein: Sursilvan soll zurück an die Schule &#124; Schweizer Radio DRS |url=http://www.drs.ch/www/de/drs/streitpunkt-rumantsch-grischun/260253.280276.riein-sursilvan-soll-zurueck-an-die-schule.html |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Drs.ch }}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> followed by an additional 4 in December, and a further 10 in early 2012, including [[Val Müstair]] (returning to Vallader), which had been the first to introduce Rumantsch Grischun. As of September 2013, all those municipalities in the Surselva which had switched to Rumantsch Grischun had decided to return to teaching in Sursilvan, with the exception of [[Pitasch]], which, however, followed later.

Supporters of Rumantsch Grischun then announced that they would take the issue to the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-11-30 |title=News – Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen |url=http://www.tagesschau.sf.tv/Hintergrund/Abstimmungen/Abstimmung-vom-11.-Maerz-2012/Muenstertal-GR |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Tagesschau.sf.tv |language=de |archive-date=2012-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314065152/http://www.tagesschau.sf.tv/Hintergrund/Abstimmungen/Abstimmung-vom-11.-Maerz-2012/Muenstertal-GR |url-status=dead }}</ref> and announced their intention to launch a cantonal referendum to enshrine Rumantsch Grischun as the language of instruction.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-06-14 |title=Pro Idioms blickt auf Erfolgsjahr zurück &#124; Bote der Urschweiz |url=http://www.bote.ch/politik/pro-idioms-blickt-auf-erfolgsjahr-zurueck |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514193136/http://www.bote.ch/politik/pro-idioms-blickt-auf-erfolgsjahr-zurueck |archive-date=2013-05-14 |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Bote.ch}}</ref>

The Lia Rumantscha opposes these moves and now supports a model of coexistence in which Rumantsch Grischun will supplement but not replace the regional varieties in school. It cites the need for keeping linguistic peace among Romansh speakers, as it says that the decades-long debate over the issue has torn friends and even families apart.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-11-16 |title=Mögliche Wende im Streit um Rumantsch &#124; Schweizer Radio DRS |url=http://www.drs.ch/www/de/drs/streitpunkt-rumantsch-grischun/260253.305619.moegliche-wende-im-streit-um-rumantsch.html |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Drs.ch }}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The canton's 2003 decision not to finance school books in the regional varieties was overturned in December 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-10-08 |title=Rückschlag für Rumantsch Grischun an den Volksschulen &#124; Mein Regionalportal |url=http://www.suedostschweiz.ch/politik/ruckschlag-fur-rumantsch-grischun-den-volksschulen |access-date=2013-06-08 |publisher=Suedostschweiz.ch}}</ref>

Rumantsch Grischun is still a project in progress.{{sfn|Cathomas|2012|pp=47–58}} At the start of 2014, it was in use as a school language in the central part of the Grisons and in the bilingual classes in the region of Chur. It was taught in upper-secondary schools, in the university of teacher education in Chur and at the universities of Zürich and [[Fribourg]], along with the Romansh idioms. It remains an official and administrative language in the Swiss Confederation and the Canton of the Grisons as well as in public and private institutions for all kinds of texts intended for the whole Romansh-speaking territory.

Until 2021, Surmiran was the only regional variety that was not taught in schools, as all the Surmiran-writing municipalities had switched to Rumantsch Grischun. However, referendums in [[Surses]], [[Lantsch/Lenz]] and [[Albula/Alvra]] in 2020 led to the return to Surmiran as the language of instruction in the entire Surmiran-writing area, beginning with those pupils who started school in 2021. The only primary schools that will continue teaching in Rumantsch Grischun are the bilingual Romansh/German schools in the cantonal capital of Chur, which is located in a German-speaking area, and in [[Trin]] and [[Domat/Ems]], where the local dialects are Sutsilvan but Sursilvan has traditionally been used as the written language.

Rumantsch Grischun is read in the news of [[Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha]] and written in the daily newspaper ''La Quotidiana'', along with the Romansh idioms. Thanks to many new texts in a wide variety of political and social functions, the Romansh vocabulary has been decisively broadened.

The "Pledari Grond"<ref>{{Cite web |title=PLEDARI GROND |url=http://www.pledarigrond.ch/rumantschgrischun/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060804160546/http://pledarigrond.ch/ |archive-date=August 4, 2006 |website=www.pledarigrond.ch |url-status=dead}}</ref> German–Rumantsch Grischun dictionary, with more than 215&nbsp;000 entries, is the most comprehensive collection of Romansh words, which can also be used in the [[#idioms|idioms]] with the necessary phonetic shifts. The signatories of "Pro Rumantsch"<ref>{{Cite web |title=pagina da partenza - pro rumantsch |url=http://www.prorumantsch.ch/partenza.html |website=www.prorumantsch.ch}}</ref> stress that Romansh needs both the idioms and Rumantsch Grischun if it is to improve its chances in today's communication society. There also exist individual dictionaries for each of the different idioms: [[Sursilvan]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Niev vocabulari Sursilvan ONLINE|url=https://www.vocabularisursilvan.ch/|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.vocabularisursilvan.ch}}</ref> [[Vallader]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=UdG Dicziunari Vallader ⇔ Deutsch|url=http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/vallader/impressum|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.udg.ch}}</ref> [[Puter]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=UdG Dicziunari Puter ⇔ Deutsch|url=http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/puter/impressum|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.udg.ch}}</ref> [[Surmiran]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=PLEDARI GROND|url=http://www.pledarigrond.ch/surmiran/|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.pledarigrond.ch}}</ref> and [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=PLEDARI GROND|url=http://www.pledarigrond.ch/sutsilvan/|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.pledarigrond.ch}}</ref> As well, the "Pledari Grond" dictionary links to several texts on the grammar of Vallader, <ref>{{Cite web|title=Grammatica Vallader|url=http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/files/grammatica_vallader.pdf|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2020-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113205944/http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/files/grammatica_vallader.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Puter,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Grammatica Puter|url=http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/files/grammatica_puter.pdf|access-date=2020-12-11|archive-date=2020-01-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113192915/http://www.udg.ch/dicziunari/files/grammatica_puter.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and Rumantsch Grischun.<ref>{{Cite web|title=RUMANTSCH GRISCHUN PER RUMANTSCHS: GRAMMATICA I|url=http://www.pledarigrond.ch/rumantschgrischun/assets/binary/grammatica.pdf}}</ref>

== Official status in Switzerland and language politics ==
In Switzerland, official language use is governed by the "territorial principle": Cantonal law determines which of the four national languages enjoys official status in which part of the territory. Only the [[federal administration of Switzerland|federal administration]] is officially quadrilingual. Romansh is an official language at the federal level, one of the three official languages of the Canton of the Grisons, and is a working language in various districts and numerous municipalities within the canton.

=== Official status at the federal level ===
The first Swiss constitution of 1848, as well as the subsequent revision of 1872, made no mention of Romansh, which at the time was not a working language of the Canton of the Grisons either. The federal government did finance a translation of the constitution into the two Romansh varieties Sursilvan and Vallader in 1872, noting, however, that these did not carry the force of law.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=183}} Romansh became a national language of Switzerland in 1938, following [[1938 Swiss referendums|a referendum]]. However, a distinction was introduced between "national languages" and "official languages". The status of a national language was largely symbolic, whereas only official languages were to be used in official documents, a status reserved for German, French, and Italian. The recognition of Romansh as the fourth national language is best seen within the context of the "[[Spiritual defence]]" preceding World War II, which aimed to underline the special status of Switzerland as a multinational country. Additionally, this was supposed to discredit the efforts of Italian nationalists to claim Romansh as a dialect of Italian and establish a claim to parts of the Grisons.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=503}} The Romansh language movement led by the [[Lia Rumantscha]] was mostly satisfied with the status as a national but not official language. Their aims at the time were to secure a symbolic "right of residence" for Romansh, and not actual use in official documents.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=506}}
[[File:Euler-10 Swiss Franc banknote (front).jpg|A 6th-series 10-[[Swiss franc]] bill, the first to include Romansh|thumb]]

This status did have disadvantages however. For instance, official name registers and property titles had to be in German, French, or Italian. This meant that Romansh-speaking parents were often forced to register their children under German or Italian versions of their Romansh names. As late as 1984, the Canton of the Grisons was ordered not to make entries into its corporate registry in Romansh.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=191}} The [[Swiss National Bank]] first planned to include Romansh on its bills in 1956, when a new series was introduced. Due to disputes within the Lia Rumantscha over whether the bills were to feature the Sursilvan version "{{lang|rm|Banca nazionala svizra}}" or the Vallader version "{{lang|rm|Banca naziunala svizzra}}", the bills eventually featured the Italian version twice, alongside French and German. When new bills were again introduced in 1976/77, a Romansh version was added by finding a compromise between the two largest varieties Sursilvan and Vallader, which read "{{lang|rm|Banca naziunala svizra}}", while the numbers on the bills were printed in Surmiran.

Following [[1996 Swiss referendums|a referendum]] on March 10, 1996, Romansh was recognized as a partial official language of Switzerland alongside German, French, and Italian in article 70 of the [[Federal constitution of Switzerland|federal constitution]]. According to the article, German, French, Italian, and Romansh are national languages of Switzerland. The official languages are declared to be German, French, and Italian, and Romansh is an official language for correspondence with Romansh-speaking people.<ref>See art. [http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/101/a4.html 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110212055734/http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/101/a4.html |date=2011-02-12 }} and [http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/101/a70.html 70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207032648/http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/101/a70.html |date=2010-12-07 }} of the 1999 Swiss Federal Constitution.</ref> This means that in principle, it is possible to address the federal administration in Romansh and receive an answer in the same language.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=40}} More precisely, under section 2.6.3 of the Federal Act on the National Languages and Understanding between the Linguistic Communities, Romansh speakers may address the administration in any variety of Romansh, though they will receive a response in Rumantsch Grischun.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CC 441.1 Federal Act of 5 October 2007 on the National Languages and Understanding between the Linguistic Communities (Languages Act, LangA) |url=https://www.admin.ch/opc/en/classified-compilation/20062545/index.html |access-date=2020-12-11 |website=www.admin.ch}}</ref>

In what the Federal Culture Office itself admits is "more a placatory and symbolic use"<ref>{{Cite web |first=Isobel |last=Leybold-Johnson |date=September 21, 2006 |title=Official Romansh still has some way to go |url=http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Official_Romansh_still_has_some_way_to_go.html?siteSect=106&sid=7056834 |access-date=2008-09-01 |website=[[Swissinfo]] |archive-date=2007-09-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215521/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/top_news/detail/Official_Romansh_still_has_some_way_to_go.html?siteSect=106&sid=7056834 |url-status=dead }}</ref> of Romansh, the federal authorities occasionally translate some official texts into Romansh. In general, though, demand for Romansh-language services is low because, according to the Federal Culture Office, Romansh speakers may either dislike the official Rumantsch Grischun idiom or prefer to use German in the first place, as most are perfectly bilingual. Without a unified standard language, the status of an official language of the Swiss Confederation would not have been conferred to Romansh. It takes time and needs to be promoted to get implemented in this new function.{{sfn|Cathomas|2012|pp=57–58}}

The [[Swiss Armed Forces]] attempted to introduce Romansh as an official language of command between 1988 and 1992. Attempts were made to form four entirely Romansh-speaking companies, but these efforts were abandoned in 1992 due to a lack of sufficient Romansh-speaking non-commissioned officers. Official use of Romansh as a language of command was discontinued in 1995 as part of a reform of the Swiss military.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=154}}

=== Official status in the canton of the Grisons ===
The Grisons is the only canton of Switzerland where Romansh is recognized as an official language. The only working language of the [[Three Leagues]] was German until 1794, when the assembly of the leagues declared German, Italian, Sursilvan, and Ladin (Putèr and Vallader) to have equal official standing. No explicit mention of any official language was made in the cantonal constitutions of 1803, 1814, and 1854. The constitution of 1880 declared that "The three languages of the Canton are guaranteed as national languages,<ref>"Die drei Sprachen des Kanton sind als ‹Landesprachen› gewährleistet"</ref> without specifying anywhere which three languages are meant. The new cantonal constitution of 2004 recognizes German, Italian, and Romansh as equal national and official languages of the canton.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|p=155}} The canton used the Romansh varieties Sursilvan and Vallader up until 1997, when Rumantsch Grischun was added and use of Sursilvan and Vallader was discontinued in 2001.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008|p=41}}
[[File:Lubiu traffic.jpg|thumb|A Romansh-language road sign in [[Waltensburg/Vuorz]]]]

This means that any citizen of the canton may request service and official documents such as ballots in their language of choice, that all three languages may be used in court, and that a member of the cantonal parliament is free to use any of the three languages.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=43}} Since 1991, all official texts of the cantonal parliament must be translated into Romansh and offices of the cantonal government must include signage in all three languages.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008|p=41}} In practice, the role of Romansh within the cantonal administration is limited and often symbolic and the working language is mainly German. This is usually justified by cantonal officials on the grounds that all Romansh speakers are perfectly bilingual and able to understand and speak German.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|pp=158–160}} Up until the 1980s it was usually seen as a provocation when a deputy in the cantonal parliament used Romansh during a speech.<ref>Richter (2005:949) in Cordey (2008). p. 81</ref>

Cantonal law leaves it to the districts and municipalities to specify their own language of administration and schooling. According to Article 3 of the cantonal constitution however, the municipalities are to "take into consideration the traditional linguistic composition and respect the autochthonous linguistic minorities". This means that the language area of Romansh has never officially been defined, and that any municipality is free to change its official language. In 2003, Romansh was the sole official language in 56 municipalities of the Grisons, and 19 were bilingual in their administrative business.{{sfn|Furer|2005|pp=140–145}} In practice, even those municipalities which only recognize Romansh as an official working language, readily offer services in German as well. Additionally, since the working language of the canton is mainly German and many official publications of the canton are available only in German, it is virtually impossible for a municipal administration to operate only in Romansh.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=79}}

=== Romansh in education ===
[[File:Schulsprachen Romanischbünden 2003.PNG|thumb|Languages of instruction in the traditionally Romansh-speaking areas of the Grisons as of 2003<br />
{{Legend|#0000FF|Romansh school}}
{{Legend|#51A8FF|Bilingual Romansh-German school}}
{{Legend|#04D00F|German school, Romansh as a subject}}
{{Legend|#008000|German schooling only}}]]
Within the Romansh-speaking areas, three different types of educational models can be found: Romansh schools, bilingual schools, and German schools with Romansh as a subject.

In the Romansh schools, Romansh is the primary language of instruction during the first 3–6 years of the nine years of compulsory schooling, and German during the last 3–9 years. Due to this, this school type is often called the "so-called Romansh school". In practice, the amount of Romansh schooling varies between half and 4/5 of the compulsory school term, often depending on how many Romansh-speaking teachers are available.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=80}} This "so-called Romansh school" was found in 82 municipalities of the Grisons as of 2001. The bilingual school was found only in [[Samedan]], [[Pontresina]], and [[Ilanz]]/[[Schnaus]]. In 15 municipalities, German was the sole medium of instruction as of 2001, with Romansh being taught as a subject.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=50}}

Outside of areas where Romansh is traditionally spoken, Romansh is not offered as a subject and as of 2001, 17 municipalities within the historical language area of Romansh do not teach Romansh as a subject.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=50}} On the secondary level, the language of instruction is mainly German, with Romansh as a subject in Romansh-speaking regions.

Outside of the traditional Romansh-speaking areas, the capital of the Grisons, [[Chur]], runs a bilingual Romansh-German elementary school.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Standardsprache Rumantsch Grischun |trans-title=Rumantsch Grischun Standard Language |url=http://lia.rumantsch.ch/94+M5d637b1e38d.0.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120712175606/http://lia.rumantsch.ch/94+M5d637b1e38d.0.html |archive-date=2012-07-12 |access-date=2012-02-28 |website=Lia Rumantsch |language=de}}</ref>

On the tertiary level, the [[University of Fribourg]] offers Bachelor- and Master programs for Romansh language and literature. The Romansh department there has been in existence since 1991. The [[University of Zürich]] also maintains a partial chair for Romansh language and literature together with the [[ETH Zürich]] since 1985.

== Geographic distribution ==
[[File:Romanisch als Haushaltssprache 1860.PNG|thumb|left|Romansh as a household language in the census of 1860, largely corresponding to the traditional language area<br />
{{Legend inline|#45008A|90–100%}}
{{Legend inline|#B300B3|75–90%}}
{{Legend inline|#FF0080|55–75%}}<br />
{{Legend inline|#FF5EAE|45- 55%}}
{{Legend inline|#FF9F40|25–45%}}
{{Legend inline|#FFFF40|10–25%}}]]
Whereas Romansh was spoken as far north as Lake Constance in the early Middle Ages, the language area of Romansh is today limited to parts of the canton of the Grisons; the last areas outside the canton to speak Romansh, the [[Vinschgau]] in South Tyrol, became German-speaking in the 17th century.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{HDS|7140|Vinschgau|date=28 February 2013}}</ref> Inside the Grisons, the language borders largely stabilized in the 16th century and remained almost unchanged until the 19th century.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=23}} This language area is often called the "Traditional Romansh-speaking territory", a term introduced by the statistician Jean-Jacques Furer based on the results of the Swiss censuses. Furer defines this language area as those municipalities in which a majority declared Romansh as their mother tongue in any of the first four Swiss censuses between 1860 and 1888. In addition, he includes [[Fürstenau GR|Fürstenau]]. This represented 121 municipalities at the time, corresponding to 116 present-day municipalities.{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=87}} The villages of [[Samnaun]], [[Sils im Domleschg]], [[Masein]], and [[Urmein]], which were still Romansh-speaking in the 17th century, had lost their Romansh majority by 1860, and are not included in this definition. This historical definition of the language area has been taken up in many subsequent publications, but the Swiss Federal Statistical Office for instance defines the language area of Romansh as those municipalities, where a majority declared to habitually use Romansh in the census of 2000.

The presence of Romansh within its traditional language area varies from region to region. In 2000, 66 municipalities still had a Romansh majority, an additional 32 had at least 20% who declared Romansh as their language of best command or as a habitually spoken language,{{sfn|Cathomas|2008|p=9}} while Romansh is either extinct or spoken only by a small minority in the remaining 18 municipalities within the traditional language area. In the [[Surselva]] region, it is the habitually spoken language of 78.5% and the language of best command of 66%. In the Sutselva region by contrast, Romansh is extinct or spoken only by a small number of older people, with the exception of [[Schams]], where it is still transmitted to children and where some villages still have a Romansh majority, notably in the vicinity of the Schamserberg. In the Surmiran region, it is the main language in the Surses region, but no longer widely spoken in the [[Albula (river)|Albula Valley]].{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=34}}

In the [[Upper Engadine]] valley, it is a habitually spoken language for 30.8% and the language of best command for 13%. However, most children still acquire Romansh through the school system, which has retained Romansh as the primary language of instruction, even though Swiss German is more widely spoken inside the home. In the [[Lower Engadine]], Romansh speakers form the majority in virtually all municipalities, with 60.4% declaring Romansh as their language of best command in 2000, and 77.4% declaring it as a habitually spoken language.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=33}}

Outside of the traditional Romansh language area, Romansh is spoken by the so-called "Romansh diaspora", meaning people who have moved out of the Romansh-speaking valleys. A significant number are found in the capital of Grisons, Chur, as well as in Swiss cities outside of Grisons.{{sfn|Furer|2005}}{{sfn|Cathomas|2008|p=14}}

=== Current distribution ===
The current situation of Romansh is quite well researched. The number of speakers is known through the Swiss censuses, with the most recent having taken place in 2000, in addition to surveys by the [[Radio e Televisiun Rumantscha]]. The quantitative data from these surveys was summed up by statistician Jean-Jacques Furer in 2005. In addition, linguist Regula Cathomas performed a detailed survey of everyday language use, published in 2008.

Virtually all Romansh-speakers today are bilingual in Romansh and German. Whereas monolingual Romansh were still common at the beginning of the twentieth century, they are now found only among pre-school children.{{sfn|Lechmann|2004|pp=345–347}} As Romansh linguist Ricarda Liver wrote in 1999:
{{Blockquote|Whereas the cliché of the bearded, sock-knitting Alpine shepherd who speaks and understands only Romansh, may still have been a reality here and there fifty years ago, there are nowadays no adult Romansh who do not possess a bilingual competence<ref>{{harvp|Liver|1999|p=67}}; original quote in German: {{lang|de|"Während vor fünfzig Jahren das Cliché des bärtigen, strümpfestrickenden Alphirten, der nur rätoromanisch spricht und versteht, noch da und dort Realität sein mochte, gibt es heute keine erwachsenen Rätoromanen mehr, die nicht über eine bilinguale Sprachkompetenz verfügten."}}</ref>|Ricarda Liver}}

The language situation today consists of a complex relationship between several [[diglossia]], since there is a functional distribution within Romansh itself between the local dialect, the regional standard variety, and nowadays the pan-regional variety [[#Rumantsch Grischun|Rumantsch Grischun]] as well; and German is also acquired in two varieties: [[Swiss German]] and [[Standard German]].{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=67}} Additionally, in [[Val Müstair]] many people also speak [[Bavarian German]] as a second language. Aside from German, many Romansh also speak additional languages, such as French, Italian, or English, learned at school or acquired through direct contact.

The Swiss census of 1990 and 2000 asked for the "language of best command" as well as for the languages habitually used in the family, at work, and in school. Previous censuses had asked only for the "mother tongue". In 1990, Romansh was named as the "language of best command" by 39,632 people, with a decrease to 35,095 in 2000. As a family language, Romansh is more widespread, with 55,707 having named it in 1990, and 49,134 in 2000. As a language used at work, Romansh was more widely used in 2000 with 20,327 responses than in 1990 with 17,753, as it was as a language used at school, with 6,411 naming it in 2000 as compared to 5,331 in 1990. Overall, a total of 60,561 people reported that they used Romansch of some sort on a habitual basis, representing 0.83% of the Swiss population.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=30}} As the language of best command, Romansh comes in 11th in Switzerland with 0.74%, with the non-national languages [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]], and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] all having more speakers than Romansh.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=35}}

In the entire canton of the Grisons, where about two-thirds of all speakers live, roughly a sixth report it as the language of best command (29,679 in 1990 and 27,038 in 2000). As a family language it was used by 19.5% in 2000 (33,707), as a language used on the job by 17.3% (15,715), and as a school language by 23.3% (5,940). Overall, 21.5% (40,168) of the population of the Grisons reported to be speaking Romansh habitually in 2000.{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=35}} Within the traditional Romansh-speaking areas, where 56.1% (33,991) of all speakers lived in 2000, it is the majority language in 66 municipalities.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Speakers within the Romansh-speaking area as defined by Jean-Jacques Furer{{sfn|Furer|2005|p=53}}
!rowspan=2|
! colspan=2| 1990
! colspan=2| 2000
|-
! No.
! %
! No.
! %
|-
! scope="row" | Total
|34,274
|51.32%
|33,991
|46.44%
|-
! scope="row" | Language of best command
|25,894
|38.78%
|24,016
|32.81%
|-
! scope="row" | Family language
|30,985
|47.68%
|28,712
|42.50%
|-
! scope="row" | Language used in employment
|11,655
|37.92%
|13,734
|38.14%
|-
! scope="row" | Language used in school
|4,479
|54.44%
|5,645
|54.91%
|}
[[File:Vrin Kirche Dorf.jpg|thumb|[[Vrin]], the municipality with the highest percentage of people naming Romansh as their language of best command in 2000 (95.6%)]]
The status of Romansh differs widely within this traditional area however. Whereas in some areas Romansh is used by virtually the entire population, in others the only speakers are people who have moved there from elsewhere. Overall, Romansh dominates in most of the [[Surselva]] and the [[Lower Engadine]] as well as parts of the [[Surses]], whereas German is the dominant daily language in most other areas, though Romansh is often still used and transmitted in a limited manner regardless.

In general, Romansh is the dominant language in most of the Surselva. In the western areas, the [[Cadi (Swiss region)|Cadi]] and the [[Lumnezia]], it is the language of a vast majority, with around 80% naming it as their language of best command, and it often being a daily language for virtually the entire population. In the eastern areas of the [[Gruob]] around [[Ilanz]], German is significantly more dominant in daily life, though most people still use Romansh regularly.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=33}} Romansh is still acquired by most children in the Cadi and Gruob even in villages where Romansh speakers are in the minority, since it is usually the language of instruction in primary education there.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=34}} Even in villages where Romansh dominates, newcomers rarely learn Romansh however, as Sursilvan speakers quickly accommodate by switching to German, so that there is often little opportunity to practice Romansh even when people are willing to learn it. Some pressure is often exerted by children, who will sometimes speak Romansh even with their non-Romansh-speaking parents.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008}}

In the [[Imboden District]] by contrast, it is only used habitually by 22%, and is the language of best command for only 9.9%. Even within this district however, the presence of Romansh varies, with 41.3% in [[Trin]] reporting to speak it habitually.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=33}} In the Sutselva, the local Romansh dialects are extinct in most villages, with a few elder speakers remaining in places such as [[Präz]], [[Scharans]], [[Feldis/Veulden]], and [[Scheid]], though passive knowledge is slightly more common. Some municipalities still offer Romansh as a foreign language subject in school, though it is often under pressure of being replaced by Italian. The notably exception is [[Schams]], where it is still regularly transmitted to children and where the language of instruction is Romansh. In the [[Surmeir]] region, it is still the dominant everyday language in the Surses, but has mostly disappeared from the [[Albula (river)|Albula Valley]]. The highest proportion of habitual speakers is found in [[Salouf]] with 86.3%, the lowest in [[Vaz/Obervaz|Obervaz]] with 18.9%.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=34}} In these areas, many Romansh speakers only speak German with their spouses as an accommodation or because of a habit, though they sometimes speak Romansh to their children. In most cases, this is not because of a will to preserve the language, but because of other reasons such as Romansh having been their own childhood language or a belief that their children will later find it easier to learn additional languages.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008}}

In the [[Upper Engadine]], it is used habitually by 30.8% and the language of best command for 13%, with only [[S-chanf]] having a Romansh majority. Even though the main every-day and family language is German, Romansh is not in imminent danger of disappearing in the Upper Engadine, due to the strong emotional attachment to the language and in particular the Romansh-language school, which means that a Romansh-speaking core always exists in some form. Romansh is often a sign of being one of the locals, and used to distinguish oneself from tourists or temporary residents, so that outsiders will sometimes acquire Romansh in order to fit in.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008}} In the Lower Engadine by contrast, Romansh is the majority language virtually everywhere, with over 80% reporting it as a habitually spoken language in most villages. The status of Romansh is even stronger in the [[Val Müstair]], where 86.4% report to speak it habitually, and 74.1% as their language of best command.{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=33}} In the Lower Engadine, outsiders are generally expected to learn Romansh if they wish to be integrated into the local community and take part in social life. In addition, there is often pressure from inside the family to learn Romansh.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008}}

<gallery>
File:Romanisch als Umgangssprache 2000.PNG|Romansh as a habitually spoken language within the traditional language area in 2000
File:Romanisch als bestbeherschte Sprache 2000.PNG|Romansh as the language of best command within the traditional language area in 2000
File:LinguaRumantsha.png|Romansh as the language of best command in the entire canton
File:Romanisch als verstandene Sprache 2003.PNG|Percentage of people reporting to understand Romansh in 2003
</gallery>

Overall, Jean-Jacques Furer concludes that the shrinkage of the Romansh-speaking areas is continuing, though at different rates depending on the region. At the same time, he notes that Romansh is still very much alive, a fact that is obvious in those areas where it retains a strong presence, such as most parts of the Surselva and the Lower Engadine. It is also assured that Romansh will continue to be transmitted for several more generations, even though each succeeding generation will be more and more rooted in German as well as Romansh. As a result, if the overall linguistic situation does not change, speakers will slowly become fewer and fewer with each generation. He also concludes however, that there are still enough speakers to ensure that Romansh will survive in the long term at least in certain regions. He considers the Romansh-language school system to be the single most crucial factor in this.{{sfn|Furer|2005|pp=127–128}}

== Phonology ==
[[File:Romansh (Wikitongues).ogg|thumb|Spoken Romansh]]
Romansh has up to 26 [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s. Two are found only in some varieties, and one is found only in loanwords borrowed from German.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! &nbsp;
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[labiodental consonant|Labio-<br />dental]]
![[dental consonant|Dental]] and<br />[[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|Palato-<br />alveolar]]
![[alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br />palatal]]
![[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[velar consonant|Velar]]
![[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
![[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɲ}}
| align=center | {{ref|1b|1}}{{IPA|ŋ}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| align=center | {{IPA|p&nbsp;&nbsp;b}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|t&nbsp;&nbsp;d}}
| &nbsp;
| rowspan="2" | {{ref|2b|2}}{{IPA|tɕ&nbsp;&nbsp;dʑ}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k&nbsp;&nbsp;ɡ}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ts}} &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|tʃ}} &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|f&nbsp;&nbsp;v}}
| align=center | {{IPA|s&nbsp;&nbsp;z}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʃ&nbsp;&nbsp;ʒ}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{ref|3b|3}}{{IPA|ç}}
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{ref|4b|4}}{{IPA|h}}
|-
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|j}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|l}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʎ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{ref|5b|5}}{{IPA|r}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
Notes:
:{{note|1b|1}} in only some dialects, notably Surmiran, and only word-final as in {{lang|rm|paung}} "bread".
:{{note|2b|2}} often transcribed as the palatal stops {{IPA|[c]}} and {{IPA|[ɟ]}} in broad transcriptions.
:{{note|3b|3}} in only some dialects, notably Putèr, and only word-finally as in {{lang|rm|amih}}, "friend".
:{{note|4b|4}} occurs only in German loanwords such as {{lang|rm|halunc}} "crook".
:{{note|5b|5}} also pronounced {{IPAblink|ʁ}} in some dialects of Sursilvan.
The voiced [[obstruent]]s are fully voiced in Romansh, in contrast to [[Swiss German]] with which Romansh is in extensive contact, and voiceless obstruents are [[Aspirated consonant|non-aspirated]]. Voiced obstruents are devoiced word-finally, however, as in {{lang|rm|buob}} "boy" > {{Audio-IPA|Rm-sursilv-buob.flac|[buɔp]}}, {{lang|rm|chöd}} "warm" > {{Audio-IPA|Roh-putèr-chöd.ogg|[tɕøt]}}, {{lang|rm|saung}} "blood" > {{Audio-IPA|Rm-sursilv-saung.flac|[sɛuŋk]}}, or {{lang|rm|clav}} "key" > {{Audio-IPA|Rm-sursilv-clav.flac|[klaf]}}.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Monophthong]]s
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
![[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|i&nbsp;&nbsp;y}}
|
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}
|-
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|e&nbsp;&nbsp;ø}}
|
| align=center | {{IPA|o}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɛ}}
|
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
![[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| {{IPA|a}}
|}
The vowel inventory varies somewhat between dialects, as the front rounded vowels {{IPAslink|y}} and {{IPAslink|ø}} are found only in [[Putèr]] and [[Vallader]]. They have historically been unrounded in the other varieties and are found only in recent loans from German there. They are not found in the pan-regional variety [[Rumantsch Grischun]] either. The now nearly extinct [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]] dialects of the [[Heinzenberg GR|Heinzenberg]] have {{IPAslink|œ}} as in {{lang|rm|pl'à'nta}} "plant" or "tree", but this is etymologically unrelated to the {{IPA|[ø]}} found in Putèr and Vallader. The exact realization of the phoneme {{IPA|/o/}} varies from {{IPAblink|ʊ}} to {{IPAblink|o}} depending on the dialect: {{Audio|Roh-putèr-cudesch.ogg|''cudesch''}} / {{Audio|Rm-sursilv-cudisch.flac|''cudisch''}} "book". It is regarded as either a marginal phoneme or not a separate phoneme from {{IPA|/u/}} by some linguists.{{sfn|Liver|1999}}

[[Stress (linguistics)|Word stress]] generally falls either on the last or the penult syllable of a word. Unstressed vowels are generally reduced to a [[schwa]], whose exact pronunciation varies between {{IPA|[ə]}} or {{IPA|[ɐ]}} as in {{Audio|Rm-sursilv-canzun.flac|''c'''a'''nzun''}} "song". [[Vowel length]] is predictable:
* Unstressed vowels are short.
* Stressed vowels in closed syllables (those with a [[syllable coda|coda]]) are:
*: long before {{IPA|/r/}}
*: short elsewhere
* Stressed vowels in open syllables are:
*: short before [[voiceless consonant]]s
*: long elsewhere

The number of [[diphthong]]s varies significantly between dialects. Sursilvan dialects contain eleven diphthongs and four [[triphthong]]s ({{IPA|[ɪau]}}, {{IPA|[ɪɛu]}}, {{IPA|[uau]}}, and {{IPA|[uɛi]}}).
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
! Falling
! Rising
|-
| '''Closing'''
| align=center | {{IPA|[aɪ]&nbsp;[au]&nbsp;[ɛɪ]&nbsp;[ɛu]&nbsp;[uɪ]&nbsp;[ɪu]}}
| align=center | {{IPA|&nbsp;}}
|-
| '''Centering'''
| align=center | {{IPA|[iə]}}
| align=center | 
|-
| '''Opening'''
| align=center | {{IPA|[uɔ]}}
| align=center | {{IPA|[uɛ]&nbsp;[ɪa]&nbsp;[ua]}}
|}
Other dialects have different inventories; Putèr, for instance, lacks {{IPA|[au]}}, {{IPA|[ɛu]}}, and {{IPA|[uɛ]}} as well as the triphthongs but has {{IPA|[yə]}}, which is missing in Sursilvan. A phenomenon known as "hardened diphthongs", in which the second vowel of a falling Diphthong is pronounced as {{IPA|[k]}}, was once common in Putèr as well, but is nowadays limited to Surmiran: {{lang|rm|strousch}} 'barely > {{IPA|[ʃtrokʃ]}}. {{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

== Orthography ==

{{Inline audio|section}}

Romansh is written in the [[Latin alphabet]], and mostly follows a [[phonemic orthography]], with a high correspondence between letters and sounds. The orthography varies slightly depending on the variety.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan="26"| [[Capital letter|Capitals]]
|-
| style="width:3%;"|[[A]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[B]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[C]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[D]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[E]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[F]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[G]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[H]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[I]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[J]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[L]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[M]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[N]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[O]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Ö]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[P]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Q]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[R]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[S]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[T]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[U]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Ü]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[V]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[X]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Z]]
|-
| colspan="26"| '''[[Lowercase]]'''
|-
| style="width:3%;"|a|| style="width:3%;"|b|| style="width:3%;"|c|| style="width:3%;"|d|| style="width:3%;"|e|| style="width:3%;"|f|| style="width:3%;"|g|| style="width:3%;"|h|| style="width:3%;"|i|| style="width:3%;"|j|| style="width:3%;"|l|| style="width:3%;"|m|| style="width:3%;"|n|| style="width:3%;"|o|| style="width:3%;"|ö|| style="width:3%;"|p|| style="width:3%;"|q|| style="width:3%;"|r|| style="width:3%;"|s|| style="width:3%;"|t|| style="width:3%;"|u|| style="width:3%;"|ü|| style="width:3%;"|v|| style="width:3%;"|x|| style="width:3%;"|z
|-
| colspan="26"| '''Names'''
|-
| style="width:3%;"|''a''|| style="width:3%;"|''be''|| style="width:3%;"|''tse''|| style="width:3%;"|''de''|| style="width:3%;"|''e''|| style="width:3%;"|''ef''|| style="width:3%;"|''ghe''|| style="width:3%;"|''ha''|| style="width:3%;"|''i''|| style="width:3%;"|''jot/i lung''|| style="width:3%;"|''el''|| style="width:3%;"|''em''|| style="width:3%;"|''en''|| style="width:3%;"|''o''|| style="width:3%;"|''ö''|| style="width:3%;"|''pe''|| style="width:3%;"|''cu''|| style="width:3%;"|''er''|| style="width:3%;"|''es''|| style="width:3%;"|''te''|| style="width:3%;"|''u''|| style="width:3%;"|''ü''|| style="width:3%;"|''ve''|| style="width:3%;"|''ichs''|| style="width:3%;"|''tset''
|}

{|class=wikitable
|+ Consonants
! Orthography
! IPA
! Example
! Notes
|-
| {{angle bracket|b}}
| {{IPA|[b]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-baselgia.flac|baselgia}} "church", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-bügl.ogg|bügl}} "water well"
| 
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|c}}
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-canaster.flac|canaster}} "basket", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-corda.ogg|corda}} "cord"
| Before {{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|o}}, {{angle bracket|u}} and consonants
|-
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-december.flac|december}}, Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-celebrar.ogg|celebrar}} "to celebrate"
| Before {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|i}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|ch}}
| {{IPA|[tɕ]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chapütscha.ogg|chapütscha}} "hat", {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-zücher.ogg|zücher}} "sugar"
| In Putèr and Vallader
|-
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-zucher.flac|zucher}} "sugar"
| In Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, and Surmiran
|-
| {{angle bracket|d}}
| {{IPA|[d]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-dadens.flac|dir}}{{Clarify|reason='dir' is different from "dadens"|date=May 2019}} "inside", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-rouda.ogg|rouda}} "wheel"
| 
|-
| {{angle bracket|f}}
| {{IPA|[f]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-fil.flac|fil}} "string", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-fö.ogg|fö}} "fire"
|
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|g}}
| {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-gattegl.flac|gattegl}} "kitten", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-god.ogg|god}} "forest"
| Before {{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|o}}, {{angle bracket|u}} and voiced consonants
|-
| {{IPA|[dʑ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-tegia.flac|tegia}} "hut", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-gö.ogg|gö}} "game", {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-saung.ogg|saung}} {{Clarify|reason=(final) affricate differs from "ŋk" mentioned in text above, and in the recording it does not seem to sound as a voiced affricate|date=May 2019}} "blood"
| Before {{angle bracket|e}}, {{angle bracket|ö}}, {{angle bracket|i}}, and {{angle bracket|ü}}; the {{angle bracket|i}} is silent when followed by another vowel; word-finally in Putèr and Vallader (usually devoiced)
|-
| {{angle bracket|gh}}
| {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-schenghegiar.flac|schenghegiar}} "to give a gift", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-ghigna.ogg|ghigna}} "grimace"
|Before {{angle bracket|e}} and {{angle bracket|i}} (appears nowhere else)
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|gl}}
| {{IPA|[ɡl]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-Glaruna.ogg|Glaruna}} "Glarus", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-glatsch.ogg|glatsch}} "ice"
| Before {{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|e}}, {{angle bracket|o}}, {{angle bracket|u}}, and {{angle bracket|ö}}
|-
| {{IPA|[ʎ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-egl.flac|egl}} "eye", {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-maglia.flac|maglia}} "food", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-glüsch.ogg|glüsch}} "light"
| Before {{angle bracket|i}}, {{angle bracket|ü}}, and word-final; the {{angle bracket|i}} is silent when another vowel follows
|-
| {{angle bracket|gn}}
| {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-gnierv.flac|gnierv}} "nerve", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chavagna.ogg|chavagna}} "basket"
|
|-
| rowspan=3 | {{angle bracket|h}}
| ''(silent)''
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-sursilvan-habitaziun.ogg|habitaziun}} "habitation", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-hoz.ogg|hoz}} "today"
| In most cases; see also {{angle bracket|ch}}, {{angle bracket|gh}}, and {{angle bracket|sch}}
|-
| {{IPA|[h]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-sursilvan-haluncs.ogg|haluncs}} "crooks", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-hobi.ogg|hobi}} "hobby"
| In some interjections and loanwords
|-
| {{IPA|[ç]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-amih2.ogg|amih}} {{Clarify|reason=final consonant in the recording sounds rather like "x" than like "ç" to me|date=May 2019}} "friend"
| In older Putèr
|-
| {{angle bracket|j}}
| {{IPA|[j]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-jamna.flac|jamna}} "week", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-muja.ogg|muja}} "two-year-old cow"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|k}}
| {{IPA|[k]}}
| Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-kilo.ogg|kilo}} "kilogram", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-tockin.ogg|tockin}} "little piece"
| Occurs only in loanwords except in Putèr and Vallader, where it also occurs before {{angle bracket|i}} and {{angle bracket|e}}
|-
| {{angle bracket|l}}
| {{IPA|[l]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-lev.flac|lev}} "light", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-miel.ogg|miel}} "honey"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|m}}
| {{IPA|[m]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-mellen.flac|mellen}} "yellow", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-mül.ogg|mül}} "mole"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|n}}
| {{IPA|[n]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-paun.flac|paun}} "bread", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-punt.ogg|punt}} "bridge"
| Except as below
|-
| {{angle bracket|ng}}
| {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
| pang "bread"
| only in Surmiran
|-
| {{angle bracket|p}}
| {{IPA|[p]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-pur.flac|pur}} "farmer", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-pom.ogg|pom}} "apple"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|qu}}
| {{IPA|[ku̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-quater.flac|quater}} "four", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-quint.ogg|quint}} "bill"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|r}}
| {{IPA|[r]}} or {{IPA|[ʁ]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-trais.ogg|trais}} "three", sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-treis.flac|treis}} "three"
|can be either alveolar or uvular, depending on the dialect and speaker
|-
| rowspan=4 | {{angle bracket|s}}
| {{IPA|[s]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-sulegl.flac|sulegl}} "sun", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-qualchosa.ogg|qualchosa}} "something"
| Usually at the beginnings of words and after consonants; always in {{angle bracket|ss}} and always at the end of a word
|-
| {{IPA|[z]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-casa.flac|casa}} "house", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-maisa.ogg|maisa}} "table"
| Usually between vowels; sometimes after {{angle bracket|l}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, or {{angle bracket|r}}; sometimes at the beginning of a word
|-
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-scaffa.flac|scaffa}} "cupboard", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-spler.ogg|spler}} "butterfly"
| Before voiceless consonants; at the beginning of a word before {{angle bracket|m}}, {{angle bracket|n}}, or {{angle bracket|r}}
|-
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-sbagl.flac|sbagl}} "mistake", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-sdun.ogg|sdun}} "spoon"
| Before a voiced obstruent
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|sch}}
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-schavet.flac|schavet}} "dull", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-schmancher.ogg|schmancher}} "to forget"
| In all positions, not distinguished in writing from {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-pischada.flac|pischada}} "butter", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-travascher.ogg|travascher}} "to work"
| In all positions except word-finally, not distinguished in writing from {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-
| {{angle bracket|s-ch}}
| {{IPA|[ʃtɕ]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-pas-chüra.ogg|pas-chüra}} "pasture"
|only occurs in Putèr and Vallader, corresponds to {{angle bracket|stg}} in other dialects
|-
| {{angle bracket|t}}
| {{IPA|[t]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-tut.flac|tut}} "all", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-tuot.ogg|tuot}} "all"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|tg}}
| {{IPA|[tɕ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-vitg.flac|vitg}} "village"
|Before ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩; the ⟨i⟩ is silent when followed by another vowel; corresponds to {{angle bracket|ch}} in Putèr and Vallader
|-
| {{angle bracket|tsch}}
| {{IPA|[tʃ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-tschintschar.flac|tschintschar}} "to talk", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-tschöver.ogg|tschöver}} "labor strike"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|v}}
| {{IPA|[v]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-riva.flac|riva}} "shore", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-verdüra.ogg|verdüra}} "vegetables"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|w}}
| {{IPA|[v]}}
|pista da bowling "bowling alley"
| Occurs only in foreign words
|-
| {{angle bracket|x}}
| {{IPA|[ks]}}
| {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-exact.flac|exact}} "exactly"
|mainly occurs in learned words and proper names
|-
| {{angle bracket|y}}
| ''(Depends on pronunciation in original language)''
| Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-hockey.ogg|hockey}} "hockey"
| Occurs only in foreign words
|-
| {{angle bracket|z}}
| {{IPA|[ts]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-canzun.flac|canzun}} "song", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-zop.ogg|zop}} "hideout"
|
|}

The vowel inventories of the five regional written varieties differ widely (in particular in regards to diphthongs), and the pronunciation often differs depending on the dialect even within them. The orthography of [[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]] is particularly complex, allowing for different pronunciations of the vowels depending on the regional dialect, and is not treated in this table.

{| class=wikitable
|+ Vowels
! Orthography
! IPA
! Example
! Notes
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{angle bracket|a}}
| {{IPA|[a]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-clav.flac|clav}} "key", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-bagn.ogg|bagn}} "bath"
| In stressed syllables
|-
| {{IPA|[ɐ]}} or {{IPA|[ə]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-casa.flac|casa}} "house", {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-canzun.flac|canzun}} "song", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chanzun.ogg|chanzun}} "song", {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-mellan.ogg|mellan}} "yellow"
| In unstressed syllables
|-
| {{angle bracket|ai}}
| {{IPA|[ai̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-zai.flac|zai}} "tough", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-naiv.ogg|naiv}} "snow"
|
|-
| rowspan=2| {{angle bracket|au}}
| {{IPA|[au̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-aur.flac|aur}} "gold", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-paur.ogg|paur}} "farmer"
|in most dialects
|-
|{{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-maun.ogg|maun}} "hand"
|in Putèr
|-
| rowspan=3 | {{angle bracket|e}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-lev.flac|lev}} "light", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-fnestra.ogg|fnestra}} "window"
| In stressed syllables
|-
|{{IPA|[e]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-tegia.flac|tegia}} "hut", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-allegra.ogg|allegra}} "greeting"
| In stressed syllables
|-
| {{IPA|[ə]}} or {{IPA|[ɐ]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-mellen.flac|mellen}} "yellow", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-cudesch.ogg|cudesch}} "book"
| In unstressed syllables
|-
| {{angle bracket|é}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[e]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-pér.flac|pér}} "pear"
|usually only words where {{IPA|[e]}} contrasts with {{IPA|[ɛ]}} are written with accents
|-
| {{angle bracket|ê}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-pêr.ogg|pêr}} "pair"
| rowspan="2" | usually only words where {{IPA|[e]}} contrasts with {{IPA|[ɛ]}} are written with accents
|-
| {{angle bracket|è}}
| {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-pèr.flac|pèr}} "pair"
|-
| {{angle bracket|ei}}
| {{IPA|[ɛi̯]}}, {{IPA|[ai̯]}}, or {{IPA|[ɔi̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-meisa.flac|meisa}} "table", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-meidi.ogg|meidi}} "doctor"
|the exact pronunciation depends on the dialect
|-
| {{angle bracket|eu}}
| {{IPA|[ɛu̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-jeu.flac|jeu}} "I", Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-glieud.ogg|glieud}} "people"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|i}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[i]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-ti.flac|ti}} "you", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-tizcher.ogg|tizcher}} "to start a fire"
| But see above for {{angle bracket|gi}} and {{angle bracket|gli}}
|-
| {{angle bracket|ï}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-gïun.ogg|gïun}} "double bass"
| marks that the vowel does not form a diphthong with the following vowel
|-
| {{angle bracket|ia}}
| {{IPA|[i̯a]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-fiasta.flac|fiasta}} "feast"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|ie}}
| {{IPA|[ie̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-tschiel.flac|tschiel}} "sky", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-miel.ogg|miel}} "honey"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|iu}}
| {{IPA|[iu̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-ischiu.flac|ischiu}} "vinegar"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|iau}}
| {{IPA|[i̯au̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-cumiau.flac|cumiau}} "parting"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|ieu}}
| {{IPA|[i̯ɛu̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-jeu.flac|jeu}} "I"
| also written {{angle bracket|jeu}}
|-
| {{angle bracket|o}}
| {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-comba.flac|comba}} "leg'", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-pom.ogg|pom}} "apple",
|
|-
|rowspan=3 |{{angle bracket|ou}}
|{{IPA|[ɔ]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-vouta.ogg|vouta}} "time"
|in Putèr
|-
|{{IPA|[o]}}
|Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-rouda.ogg|rouda}} "wheel"
|in Vallader
|-
|[ou̯]
|''sur. nous'' "we"
|in Surmiran
|-
| rowspan="2" | {{angle bracket|u}}
| {{IPA|[u]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-luvrar.flac|luvrar}} "to work", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-tudas-ch.ogg|tudas-ch}} "German"
| rowspan="2" |depending on the word and dialect
|-
|{{IPA|[o]}}, {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|sur. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-cudisch.flac|cudisch}} "book", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-cudesch.ogg|cudesch}} "book"
|-
| {{angle bracket|ua}}
| {{IPA|[u̯a]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-quater.flac|quater}} "four", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-aguagliöl.ogg|aguagliöl}} "nail"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|ue}}
| {{IPA|[u̯ɛ]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-quen.flac|quen}} "bill"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|ui}}
| {{IPA|[u̯i]}}
| Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-quint.ogg|quint}} "bill"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|uo}}
| {{IPA|[uɔ̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-buob.flac|buob}} "boy", Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chamuotsch.ogg|chamuotsch}} "chamois"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|uai}}
| {{IPA|[u̯ai̯]}}
| ''quai'' "this", Put. ''frequaint'' "frequently"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|uei}}
| {{IPA|[u̯ɛi̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-quei.flac|quei}} "this"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|uau}}
| {{IPA|[u̯au̯]}}
| Surs. {{Audio-nohelp|Rm-sursilv-uaul.flac|uaul}} "forest"
|
|-
| {{angle bracket|ö}}
| {{IPA|[ø]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-chaschöl.ogg|chaschöl}} "cheese"
| rowspan="3" |only in Putèr and Vallader
|-
| {{angle bracket|ü}}
| [y]
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-tü.ogg|tü}} "you"
|-
| {{angle bracket|üe}}
| {{IPA|[yɛ̯]}}
|Put. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-putèr-spüerta.ogg|spüerta}} "offer"
|-
|{{angle bracket|y}}
|''(Depends on pronunciation in original language)''
|Vall. {{Audio-nohelp|Roh-vallader-hockey.ogg|hockey}} "hockey"
|Occurs only in foreign words
|}

== Morphology ==
The following description deals mainly with the Sursilvan dialect, which is the best-studied so far. The dialects Putèr and Vallader of the Engadine valley in particular diverge considerably from Sursilvan in many points. When possible, such differences are described.

Nouns are not inflected for case in Romansh; the grammatical category is expressed through word order instead. As in most other Romance languages, Romansh nouns belong to two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. A definite article (masc. {{lang|rm|il}} or {{lang|rm|igl}} before a vowel; fem. {{lang|rm|la}}) is distinguished from an indefinite article (masc. {{lang|rm|in}}, {{lang|rm|egn}}, {{lang|rm|en}} or {{lang|rm|ün}}, depending on the dialect; fem. {{lang|rm|ina}}, {{lang|rm|egna}}, {{lang|rm|ena}} or {{lang|rm|üna}}). The plural is usually formed by adding the suffix -s. In Sursilvan, masculine nouns are sometimes irregular, with the stem vowel alternating:
* {{lang|rm|il mir}} "the wall" – {{lang|rm|ils mirs}} "the walls".
* {{lang|rm|la casa}} "the house" – {{lang|rm|las casas}} "the houses".
* irregular: {{lang|rm|igl iev}} "the egg" – {{lang|rm|ils ovs}} "the eggs".

A particularity of Romansh is the so-called "collective plural" to refer to a mass of things as a whole:
* {{lang|rm|il crap}} "the stone" – {{lang|rm|ils craps}} "the stones".
* collective: {{lang|rm|la crappa}} "rock".

Adjectives are inflected according to gender and number. Feminine forms are always regular, but the stem vowel sometimes alternates in the masculine forms:
* fem. {{lang|rm|bial}} (sg.) – {{lang|rm|biala}} (pl.) "good"
* masc. {{lang|rm|bien}} (sg.) – {{lang|rm|buns}} (pl.) "good".

Sursilvan also distinguishes an attributive and predicative form of adjectives in the singular. This is not found in some of the other dialects however:
* Attributive: {{lang|rm|in bien carstgaun}} "a good human (person)"
* Predicative : {{lang|rm|il carstgaun ei buns}} "the human (person) is good"

There are three singular and three plural pronouns in Romansh (Sursilvan forms shown below):
 {| class="wikitable"
|-
!
!sg.
!pl.
|-
| 1st person || {{lang|rm|jeu}} || {{lang|rm|nus}}
|-
| 2nd person || {{lang|rm|ti}} || {{lang|rm|vus}}
|-
| 3rd person || {{lang|rm|el}}/{{lang|rm|ella}}/{{lang|rm|ei(igl)}} || {{lang|rm|els}}/{{lang|rm|ellas}}/{{lang|rm|ei}}
|}
There is a [[T–V distinction]] between familiar {{lang|rm|ti}} and polite {{lang|rm|vus}}. Putèr and Vallader distinguish between familiar {{lang|rm|tü}} and {{lang|rm|vus}} and polite {{lang|rm|El}}/{{lang|rm|Ella}} and {{lang|rm|Els}}/{{lang|rm|Ellas}}. Pronouns for the polite forms in Putèr and Vallader are always capitalized to distinguish them from third person pronouns: {{lang|rm|Eau cugnuosch a Sia sour}} "I know your sister" and {{lang|rm|Eau cugnuosch a sia sour}} "I know his/her sister".

The 1st and 2nd person pronouns for a direct object have two distinct forms, with one occurring following the preposition {{lang|rm|a}}: {{lang|rm|dai a mi tiu codisch}} "give me your book".

A particularity of Sursilvan is that reflexive verbs are all formed with the reflexive pronoun {{lang|rm|se-}}, which was originally only the third person pronoun:
* {{lang|rm|jeu selavel}} "I am washing myself".
* {{lang|rm|ti selaves}} "you are washing yourself".
* {{lang|rm|el/ella selava}} "he/she is washing her/himself".
* {{lang|rm|nus selavein}} "we are washing ourselves".
* {{lang|rm|els/ellas selavan}} "they are washing themselves".

The other Romansh dialects distinguish different reflexive pronouns however.

Possessive pronouns occur in a pronominal and a predicative form that differ only in the masculine form, however:
* {{lang|rm|miu tgaun}} "my dog" – {{lang|rm|il tgaun ei mes}} "the dog is mine".
* {{lang|rm|vies problem}} "your problem" – {{lang|rm|quei problem ei vos}} "that problem is yours".
The feminine remains the same: {{lang|rm|sia casa}} "her/his house" – {{lang|rm|quella casa ei sia}} "this house is hers/his"

Three different demonstrative pronouns {{lang|rm|quel}}, {{lang|rm|tschel}}, and {{lang|rm|lez}} are distinguished: {{lang|rm|A quel fidel jeu, a tschel buc}} "I trust that one, but not that other one" or {{lang|rm|Ed il bab, tgei vegn lez a dir?}} "and the father, what is he going to say?".

Verb tenses are divided into synthetic forms (present, imperfect) and analytic forms (perfect, pluperfect, future, passive) distinguished by the grammatical moods [[Indicative mood|indicative]], [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]], [[Conditional mood|conditional]], and [[Imperative mood|imperative]]. These are most common forms in Sursilvan:

{| class="wikitable"
!Tense
!Example
!Translation
|-
| Indicative present|| {{lang|rm|jeu '''sun''' da Trun}} || "I am from Trun"
|-
| Indicative perfect|| {{lang|rm|jeu '''sun staus''' en vacanzas}} || "I have been on vacation"
|-
| Imperfect || {{lang|rm|da quei '''savevel''' jeu nuot}} || "I didn't know anything about that"
|-
| Future|| {{lang|rm|els '''vegnan a dir'''}} || "they will say"
|-
| Imperative || {{lang|rm|'''cantei'''!}} || "sing!"
|-
| Conditional || {{lang|rm|jeu '''durmess'''}} || "I would sleep"
|}

== Syntax ==
The syntax of Romansh has not been thoroughly investigated so far. Regular word order is [[subject–verb–object]], but [[subject-auxiliary inversion]] occurs in several cases, placing the verb at the beginning of a sentence:
* To form a question: {{lang|rm|'''Eis''' el aunc cheu?}} – "Is he still there?".
* In [[declarative sentence]]s: {{lang|rm|Damaun '''mein''' nus en vacanzas}} – "Tomorrow, we go on vacation".
* When an [[independent clause]] is placed after the [[dependent clause]]: {{lang|rm|Cura ch'el ei entraus, '''ein''' tuts stai sin peis}} – "When he entered, everyone stood up".
* As well as in other stylistic variations.

These features are in close concord with German syntax, which has likely reinforced them. However, this need not mean that they are due entirely to language contact. In fact, similar tendencies can be observed in [[Old French]].

A sentence is [[Negation (linguistics)|negated]] by adding a negative particle. In Sursilvan, this is {{lang|rm|buc}}, placed after the verb, while in other dialects such as Putèr and Vallader, it is {{lang|rm|nu}}, placed before the verb:
* Sursilvan: {{lang|rm|Jeu hai buc fatg quei}} – "I didn't do that".
* Putèr: {{lang|rm|La vschinauncha nu vegn isoleda da la naiv}} – "The village does not get cut off by snow".

A feature found only in Putèr and Vallader (as it is in Castilian Spanish) is the preposition of a direct object, when that direct object is a person or an animal, with {{lang|rm|a}}, as in {{lang|rm|test vis a Peider?}} "did you see Peter?", {{lang|rm|eau d'he mno a spass al chaun}} "I took the dog out for a walk", but {{lang|rm|hest vis la baselgia?}} "did you see the church?".

== Vocabulary ==
No systematic synchronic description of Romansh vocabulary has been carried out so far.{{sfn|Liver|2009}} Existing studies usually approach the subject from a historical perspective, taking particular interest in pre-Roman substratum, archaic words preserved only in Romansh, or in loan words from German. A project to compile together all known historic and modern Romansh vocabulary is the [[Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun]], first published in 1904, with the 13th edition currently in preparation.

=== Raetic and Celtic ===
The influence of the languages ([[Raetic language|Raetic]] and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) spoken in Grisons before the arrival of the Romans is most obvious in [[Toponymy|placenames]], which are often pre-Roman. Since very little is known about the Celtic language once spoken in Grisons, and almost nothing about Raetic, words or placenames thought to come from them are usually simply referred to as "pre-Roman". Apart from placenames, such words are found in landscape features, plant and animal names unique to the Alps, and tools and methods related to alpine [[Transhumance in the Alps|transhumance]].{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=75}} Such words include:
* Raetic: ''gnieu'' (Surs. ''igniv''; Suts. ''(a)gnieu, ugnieu''; Surm. ''nia''; Put., Val. ''gnieu''; Jauer ''agnieu'') "nest, eyrie",<ref>''Newsletter Val Müstair'', Dec. 2006, p. 3, [pdf], accessed 24 May 2012, available at [http://www.muenstertal.ch/newsletter/2006.12.pdf]{{Dead link|date=August 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}.</ref> ''ampauna'' (Surs. ''puauna''; Suts. ''omgia, ontga''; Surm. ''omgia''; Puter ''ampa''; Val. ''amp(u)a'') "raspberry", ''izun'' (Surs. ''izun''; Suts. ''(n)izùn''; Surm. ''izung''; Put., Val. ''uzun''; Jauer ''anzola'') "bilberry",<ref>''Newsletter Val Müstair'', 2006, p. 3.</ref> ''chamutsch'' (Surs. ''camutsch''; Suts., Surm. ''tgamutsch''; Put., Val. ''chamuotsch'') "[[chamois]]", ''crap'' (all dialects) "rock", ''gonda'' (Val.) "scree slope", ''grip'' (Surs., Suts. ''grep''; Surm. ''crepel, crap''; Put., Val. ''grip'') 'cliff', ''grusaida'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-grusaida.ogg|grusaida}}''; Put., Val. ''grusaida'') "[[Rhododendron ferrugineum|snow rose]]", ''panaglia'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-panaglia.ogg|panaglia}}''; Val. ''panaglia'') "[[butter churn]]", ''schember'' (Surs. ''schiember''; Suts., Surm. ''schember''; Put., Val. ''dschember'') "[[Swiss pine]]" (< ''*gimberu'' < Raetic<ref>Robert Planta, ''Rätisches Namenbuch'', vol. 2, s.v. "gimberu" (Zürich: 1985), 162.</ref> ''*𐌊𐌉𐌌𐌓𐌖 (*kimru, *gimru)''.<ref>Johannes Kramer et al., ''Vocabulario anpezan'', 4 vols. (Gerbrunn: 1982-8), 397.</ref>), ''signun'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-signun.ogg|signun}}''; Val. ''signun'', Put. ''signun, sain'') "chief herder on a seasonal pasture" (cf. [[German language|German]] ''Senn''), ''tschess'' (Surs. ''tschéss''; Surm. ''tschess, tschissùn'') '(golden) eagle', ''urlaun'' (Surs.) '[[Lagopus|ptarmigan]]';
* Celtic: ''carmun'' (Surs. ''carmun'') "weasel", ''dischariel'' (Surs. ''derschalet''; Surm. ''darschalet, ischier''; Put., Val. ''dischöl'') "goblin, nightmare",<ref>Xavier Delamarre, ''Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise'', 2nd edn. (Paris: Errance, 2008), 158.</ref> ''draig'' "sieve", ''glitta'' (Surs. ''gliet(ta)'') "silt, mud", ''grava'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-grava.ogg|grava}}''; Val. ''grava'') "[[scree]]",<ref>Decurtins (1993). p. 12</ref> ''mat'' "boy" ~ ''matta'' (Surs., Surm., Put., Val. ''matta''; Suts. ''mata'') "girl", ''mellen'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-mellen.ogg|mellen}}''; Surm., Put. ''mellen''; Suts. ''melen'') "yellow", ''tegia'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-tegia.ogg|tegia}}''; Suts., Surm. ''tigia''; Put. ''tegia''; Val. ''teja'') "alpine hut", ''trutg'' (Surs., Suts. ''trutg''; Surm. ''trotg''; Put. ''truoch''; Val. ''truoi'') "footpath, drove way", ''tschigrun'' (Surs. ''{{Audio|Roh-sursilvan-tschigrun.ogg|tschigrun}}''; Put., Val. ''tschigrun'') "whey cheese".<ref>Liver in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, p. 219</ref>
* Other Pre-Roman words include: ''chalun'' (Surs. ''calun''; Suts. ''calùn''; Surm. ''calung''; Put., Val. ''gialun'') "hip" (< ''*galon''),<ref>Krefeld, Thomas (1994): Der surselvische Wortschatz, die questione ladina und die quantitative Arealtypologie. In: Ladina, Vol. 18: p. 270, 277 [http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/5898/1/5898.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115332/http://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/5898/1/5898.pdf|date=2015-04-02}}</ref> ''tschanc'' (Put., Val.) "left (hand)" (< ''*čaŋk, *čamp''),<ref name="Krefeld 1994. p. 277">Krefeld (1994). p. 277</ref> ''lisüra'' (Put., Val.) "joint, link" (< ''*lisura'').<ref name="Krefeld 1994. p. 277" /> Some other possibly Pre-Roman origin words are: ''tatona'' (Surs., Suts. ''totona''; Surm. ''tutona'') "nape of the neck, back of the neck",<ref name="cf. Krefeld 1994. p. 276">cf. Krefeld (1994). p. 276</ref> ''brentina'' (Surs. ''brentina''; Suts. ''brenta, brantgegna''; Surm. ''brainta''; Val. ''brenta'') "fog, mist",<ref name="cf. Krefeld 1994. p. 276" /> ''dascha'' (Val.) "twig".

=== Latin stock ===
Like all languages, Romansh has its own archaisms, that is, words derived from Latin that in most other Romance languages have fallen out of use or taken niche meanings. Examples include ''baselgia'' "church" (cf. [[Vegliote]] ''bašalka'', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''biserică''), ''nuidis'' "grudgingly, reluctantly" (< Latin ''invitus''), ''urar'' "to pray" (cf. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''orar'', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''a ura'' ‘to wish’), ''aura'' "weather" (cf. [[Old French]] ''ore'', [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] ''avrî''), ''scheiver'' "carnival",<ref>Schläpfer & Bickel 2000</ref> ''cudesch'' "book", the last two of which are only found in Romansh. The non-Engadinese dialects retain ''anceiver'' ~ ''entschaiver'' "to begin", from Latin ''incipere'', otherwise found only in Romanian ''începe'', whereas Surmiran and Engadinese (Putèr, Vallader) and all other Romance languages retain a reflex of Latin *''cuminitiāre'', e.g. Engadinese ''(s)cumanzar'', Italian ''cominciare'', French ''commencer''. Other examples are ''memia'' (adv.) "too much" from Latin ''nimia'' (adj., fem.) (otherwise only found in [[Old Occitan]]),<ref>Liver in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, p. 217</ref> ''vess'' "difficult" from Latin ''vix'' "seldom"<ref name="Liver">{{cite book |first=Ricarda |last=Liver |chapter=Le romanche (rhéto-roman) des Grisons |trans-chapter=Graubünden Romansh (Rhaeto-Romance) |title=Dictionnaire des langues |trans-title=Dictionary of Languages |location=Paris |publisher=PUF |date=2011 |page=604}}</ref> (cf. [[Old Spanish]] ''abés'', Romanian ''abia'' < ''ad vix''), and Engadinese ''encleger'' "to understand" (vs. non-Engadinese ''capir''), also found in Romanian ''înțelege'' and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ''(n)dëgjoj'', from Latin ''intellegere''. Some unique innovations include ''tedlar'' "to listen" from Latin ''titulare'' and ''patertgar'' "to think" from ''pertractare''.<ref name="Liver" />

=== Germanic loanwords ===
Another distinguishing characteristic of Romansh vocabulary is its numerous Germanic loanwords.

Some Germanic loan words already entered the language in Late Antiquity or the Early Middle Ages, and they are often found in other Romance languages as well. Words more particular to Romansh include Surs./ Suts. ''tschadun'', Surm. ''sdom''/''sdong'', Engad. ''sdun'' "spoon", which is also found in [[Ladin language|Ladin]] as ''sciadon'' and Friulian as ''sedòn'' and is thought to go back to Ostrogothic *skeitho, and it was once probably common throughout Northern Italy.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=139}} Another such early loan is ''bletsch'' "wet", which probably goes back to Old Frankish ''blettjan'' "to squeeze", from where French ''blesser'' "to wound" is also derived. The change in meaning probably occurred by the way of "bruised fruit", as is still found in French ''blet''.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=139}} Early Germanic loans found more commonly in the other Romance languages includes Surs./Vall. ''blau'', Suts. ''blo''/''blova'', Surm. ''blo''/''blava'', Put. ''blov'' "blue", which is derived from Germanic ''blao'' and also found for instance in French as ''bleu'' and Italian as ''blu''.

Others were borrowed into Romansh during the [[Old High German]] period, such as ''glieud'' "people" from OHG ''liut'' or Surs. ''uaul'', Suts. ''gòld'', Surm. ''gôt'', eng. ''god'' 'forest' from OHG ''wald''. Surs. ''baul'', Suts. ''bòld'', Engad. ''bod'' 'soon, early, nearly' is likely derived from [[Middle High German]] ''bald, balde'' "keen, fast"{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=144}} as are Surs. ''nez'', Engad. ''nüz'' "use" from Middle High German ''nu(t)z'', or ''losch'' "proud" likely from Middle High German ''lôs''. Other examples include Surs. ''schuber'' "clean" from Swiss German ''suuber'', Surs. ''schumber'' "drum" from Swiss German or Middle High German ''sumber'', and Surs. ''schufar'' "to drink greedily" from Swiss German ''suufe''.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=144}}

Some words were adapted into Romansh through different dialects of German, such as the word for "farmer", borrowed as ''paur'' from [[Bavarian language|Bavarian]] in Vallader and Putèr, but from [[Alemannic language|Alemannic]] as ''pur'' in the other dialects.

In addition, many German words entered Romansh beginning in the 19th century, when numerous new objects and ideas were introduced. Romansh speakers often simply adopted the German words, such as ''il zug'' "the train" or ''il banhof'' "the train station". Language purists attempted to coin new Romansh words instead, which were occasionally successful in entering popular usage. Whereas ''il tren'' and ''la staziun'' managed to replace ''il zug'' and ''il banhof'', other German words have become established in Romansh usage, such as ''il schalter'' "the switch", ''il hebel'' "the lever", ''la schlagbohrmaschina'' "the hammer drill", or ''in schluc'' "a sip".<ref>Carigiet, Werner in Schläpfer & Bickel 2000, p. 238</ref> Especially noticeable are interjections such as ''schon'', ''aber'' or ''halt'', which have become established in everyday language. In a few cases, there was a semantic shift, such as ''uaffen'', "tool", derived from ''Waffe'', "weapon".

== Language contact ==
Romansh speakers have been in close contact with speakers of German dialects such as Alemannic and Bavarian for centuries, as well as speakers of various Italian dialects and Standard German more recently. These languages have influenced Romansh, most strongly the vocabulary, whereas the German and Italian influences on morphology and syntax are much more limited. This means that despite German influence, Romansh has remained a Romance language in its core structure.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} Romansh linguist Ricarda Liver also notes that an influence of Swiss German on intonation is obvious, in particular in the Sursilvan dialect, even though this has so far not been linguistically studied.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} The influence of German is generally strongest in the Rhenish varieties Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, and Sursilvan, where French loanwords (frequently not borrowed directly but transmitted through German) are also more numerous. In the dialects of the Engadine, by contrast, the influence of Italian is stronger.<ref>Grünert, Matthias (2013). Italienischer Einfluss in Lexemverbänden und Wortformenparadigmen des Bündnerromanischen. In G. Darms, C. Riatsch & C. Solèr (eds.), Akten des V. Rätoromanistischen Kolloquiums / Actas dal V. Colloqui retoromanistic. Lavin 2011, 105–124. Tübingen: Francke.</ref>

In the Engadinese written languages, Putèr and Vallader, Italian-influenced spellings, learned words, and derivations were previously abundant, for instance in Zaccaria Pallioppi's 1895 dictionary, but came under scrutiny at the start of the 20th century and were gradually eliminated from the written language. Following reforms of the written languages of the Engadine, many of these Italian words fell out of usage (such as ''contadin'' 'farmer' instead of ''paur'', ''nepotin'' 'nephew' rather than ''abiadi'', ''ogni'' 'everyone' instead of ''inmincha'', ''saimper'' 'always' instead of ''adüna'', and ''abbastanza'' 'enough' instead of ''avuonda''), while others persisted as synonyms of more traditional Ladin words (such as ''tribunal'' 'court' alongside ''drettüra'', ''chapir'' alongside ''incleger'', and ''testimoni'' 'witness' alongside ''perdütta'').

Aside from the written language, everyday Romansh was also influenced by Italian through the large number of emigrants, especially from the Engadine, to Italy, the so-called [[Randulin]]. These emigrants often returned with their Romansh speech influenced by Italian.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch">Grünert, Matthias (2010). Ein italienischer Streifzug durch die Rumantschia. Mitteilungen VBK ikg, (10):23–27. Retrieved Jan. 9, 2016 from https://www.zora.uzh.ch/33261/2/2010_02__Ein_Italienischer_Streifzug_durch_die_Rumantschia.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065136/https://www.zora.uzh.ch/33261/2/2010_02__Ein_Italienischer_Streifzug_durch_die_Rumantschia.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }}</ref>

=== German loanwords ===
German loanwords entered Romansh as early as the Old High German period in the Early Middle Ages, and German has remained an important source of vocabulary since. Many of these words have been in use in Romansh for long enough that German speakers no longer recognize them as German, and for morphological derivations of them to have appeared, in particular through the suffix ''-egiar ~ iar'', as in Surs. ''baghegiar'', sut. ''biagear'', Surm. ''biagier'', Put. ''biager'', Vall. ''bear'' "to build", derived from Middle High German ''bûwen''. Other examples include ''malegiar'' "to paint" (← ''malen''), ''schenghegiar'' "to give (a present)" (← ''schenken''), ''schazegiar'' "to estimate" (← ''schätzen''),{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=176}} or Surs. ''betlegiar'' (sut. ''batlagear'', Surm./Put. ''batlager'', Vall. ''supetliar'') "to beg", derived from Swiss German ''bettle'' with the same meaning.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=140}} Nouns derived from these verbs include ''maletg'' "painting", ''schenghetg'' "gift", ''schazetg'' "estimation", or ''bagetg'' "building".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=140}} The adjective ''flissi'' "hard-working" has given rise to the noun ''flissiadad'' "industriousness". The word ''pur'' has given rise to derived words such as ''pura'' "farmwife, female farmer" or ''puranchel'' "small-time farmer", as has ''buob'' "boy" from Swiss German ''bueb'' "boy", with the derivations ''buoba'' "girl" and ''buobanaglia'' "crowd of children".

=== Italian, Ladin and Gallo-italic loanwords ===
Common nouns of Italian origin include ''resposta/risposta'' "answer", ''vista/vesta'' "view", ''proposta'' "proposal", ''surpresa/surpraisa'' "surprise", and ''offaisa/offesa'' "insult". In Ladin, many such nouns are borrowed or derived from Italian and end in –a, whereas the same group of nouns in Sursilvan frequently ends in –iun and where borrowed either from French or formed through analogy with Latin. Examples include ''pretensiun'' "opinion, claim" vs. ''pretaisa'', ''defensiun'' "defense" vs. ''defaisa'', or ''confirmaziun'' "confirmation" vs. ''conferma''.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

Other Italian words used throughout Romansh include the words for "nail", which are derived from Italian ''acuto'' "sharp", which has yielded Sur. ''guota'', Sut. ''guta'', Surm. ''gotta'', and Ladin ''guotta/aguotta'', whereas the Romansh word for "sharp" itself (Rhenish: ''git'', Ladin ''agüz'') is derived from the same Latin source ACUTUM. Words from Lombard and [[Venetian language|Venetian]] related to crafts include Ladin ''marangun'' "carpenter" (← Venetian ''marangon''), as opposed to ''lennari'' in other Romansh dialects, ''chazzoula'' "trowel" (← Lombard ''cazzola''), or ''filadè'' "spinning wheel" (← Lombard ''filadel''). Other words include culinary items such as ''macaruns'' "macaroni" (← ''maccheroni''); ''tschiculatta/tschugalata'' "chocolate" (← ''cioccolata'' or Lombard ''ciculata/cicolata''), Ladin and Surmiran ''limun/limung'' "lemon" as opposed to Sursilvan ''citrona'' (← ''limone''), ''giabus/baguos'' "cabbage" (← Lombard ''gabüs''), ''chanella/canella'' "cinnamon" (← ''cannella''). In Sursilvan, the word ''ogna'' "flat cake" can be found, which is derived from Italian ''lasagna'', with the initial ''las-'' having been mistaken for the plural article, and the vowel having been adapted to Sursilvan sound patterns through analogy with words such as ''muntogna'' "mountain". Others are words for animals such as ''lodola'' "lark" (← ''lodola'') or ''randulina'' "swallow" (← Lombard ''randulina''), as well as Ladin ''scarafagi/scarvatg'' "beetle" (← ''scarafaggio''). Other Italian words include ''impostas'' "taxes" (← ''imposte''; as opposed to Rhenish ''taglia''), ''radunanza/radunonza'' "assembly" (← ''radunanza''), Ladin ''ravarenda'' "(Protestant) priest" (← ''reverendo''), ''bambin'' "Christmas child (giftbringer)" (← ''Gesù Bambino''), ''marchadant/marcadont'' "merchant" (← ''mercatante'') or ''butia/buteia'' "shop" (← ''bottega'').<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

In Ladin, Italian borrowings also include words groups not usually borrowed readily. Examples include pronouns such as ''qualchosa'' "something" (← ''qualcosa''), ''listess'' "the same one" (← Lombard or Venetian ''l'istess''), adverbs such as ''apunta'' "exactly" (← ''appunto''), ''magara/magari'' "fairly/quite" (← ''magari''), prepositions like ''dürant/duront'' "during" (← ''durante'') and ''malgrà/malgrad'' "despite" (← ''malgrado''), and conjunctions such as ''però'' "but" (← ''però'') and ''fin cha'' 'until' (← ''finché''). Most of these are confined to Ladin, with some exceptions such as Sursilvan ''magari'', ''duront'', and ''malgrad''.<ref name="zora.uzh.ch" />

=== Germanic calques ===
Aside from outright loanwords, the German influence on Romansh often takes the form of [[calque]]s, where Romanic vocabulary has taken on the meaning of German words, summed up by [[Languages of Italy|Italian dialect]][[Dialectology|olog]][[Linguist|ist]] [[Graziadio Isaia Ascoli]] in 1880 as "{{lang|it|materia romana e spirito tedesco}}" ("Roman body and German soul"). The earliest examples go back to [[Carolingian Empire|Carolingian]] times and show the influence of Germanic law. Such words include {{lang|rm|tschentament}} "statute", a derivation of the verb {{lang|rm|tschentar}} (from Latin *{{lang|la|sedentare}} "to sit") as an analogy to Middle High German {{lang|gmh|satzunge}} or Surs./sut./Surm. {{lang|rm|lètg}}, Put. {{lang|rm|alach}}, Vall. {{lang|rm|lai}} "marriage", derived from Latin {{lang|la|legem}} (accusative singular of {{lang|la|lēx}} "law"), with the meaning of Middle High German {{lang|gmh|ê, ewe}}.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=141}} A more recent example of a loan translation is the verb {{lang|rm|tradir}} "to betray", which has taken on the additional meaning of German {{lang|de|verraten}} of "to give away"{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=142}} as in {{lang|rm|tradir in secret}} "to give away a secret", originally covered by the verb {{lang|rm|revelar}}.

Particularly common are combinations of verbs with [[locative adverb]]s, such as {{lang|rm|vegnir cun}} "to accompany" (literally "to come with"), {{lang|rm|vegnir anavos}} "to come back", {{lang|rm|far cun}} "to participate" (literally "to do with"), {{lang|rm|far giu}} "to agree on" (literally "to do down"), or {{lang|rm|grodar tras}} "to fail" (literally "to fall through"). Whereas such verbs also occur sporadically in other Romance languages as in French {{lang|fr|prendre avec}} "to take along" or Italian {{lang|it|andare via}} "to go away", the large number in Romansh suggests an influence of German, where this pattern is common.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=142}} However, [[prepositional verb]]s are also common in the (Romance) [[Lombard language]] spoken in the bordering Swiss and Italian regions. The verbs {{lang|rm|far cun}} "to participate" or {{lang|rm|grodar tras}} "to fail" for example, are direct equivalents of German {{lang|de|mitmachen}} (from {{lang|de|mit}} "with" and {{lang|de|machen}} "to do") and {{lang|de|durchfallen}} (from {{lang|de|durch}} "through" and {{lang|de|fallen}} "to fall").

Less integrated into the Romansh verbal system are constructions following the pattern of {{lang|rm|far il}} ("doing the") + a German infinitive. Examples include {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|löten}} "to solder", {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|würzen}} "to season", or {{lang|rm|far il}} {{lang|de|vermissen}} "to miss, to feel the absence of".

German also often serves as a model for the creation of new words. An example is Surs. {{lang|rm|tschetschapuorla}} "vacuum cleaner", a compound of {{lang|rm|tschitschar}} "to suck" and {{lang|rm|puorla}} "dust", following the model of German {{lang|de|Staubsauger}} – the Italian word, {{lang|it|aspirapolvere}} possibly being itself a calque on the German word. The Engadinese dialects on the other hand have adopted {{lang|rm|aspiradur}} from Italian {{lang|it|aspiratore}}, which, however, does not mean "vacuum cleaner". A skyscraper, which is a direct loan translation from English in many Romance languages (as in French {{lang|fr|gratte-ciel}}, Italian {{lang|it|grattacielo}}), is a loan translation of German {{lang|de|Wolkenkratzer}} (literally "cloud-scraper") in Sursilvan: {{lang|rm|il sgrattaneblas}} (from {{lang|rm|sgrattar}} "to scratch" and {{lang|rm|neblas}} "clouds"). The Engadinese varieties again follow the Italian pattern of {{lang|rm|sgrattatschêl}} (from {{lang|rm|tschêl}} "sky").{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=143}} A more recent word is {{lang|rm|la natelnumra}} "the cell phone number", which follows the word order of Swiss German {{lang|gsw|Natelnummer}}, and is found alongside {{lang|rm|la numra da natel}}.

Examples of idiomatic expressions include Surs. {{lang|rm|dar in canaster}}, Engad. {{lang|rm|dar ün dschierl}}, a direct translation of German {{lang|de|einen Korb geben}}, literally meaning "to hand a basket", but used in the sense of "turning down a marriage proposal" or {{lang|rm|esser ligiongia ad enzatgi}}, a loan translation of the German expression {{lang|de|jemandem Wurst sein}}, literally meaning "to be sausage to someone" but meaning "not cared about, to be unimportant".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=143}}

=== Morphosyntax ===
Apart from vocabulary, the influence of German is noticeable in grammatical constructions, which are sometimes closer to German than to other Romance languages.

For instance, Romansh is the only Romance language in which [[indirect speech]] is formed using the [[subjunctive mood]], as in Sursilvan {{lang|rm|El di ch'el seigi malsauns}}, Putèr {{lang|rm|El disch ch'el saja amalo}}, "He says that he is sick", as compared to Italian {{lang|it|Dice che è malato}} or French {{lang|fr|Il dit qu'il est malade}}. Ricarda Liver attributes this to the influence of German.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}} Limited to Sursilvan is the insertion of entire phrases between auxiliary verbs and participles as in {{lang|rm|Cun Mariano Tschuor ha Augustin Beeli discurriu}} "Mariano Tschuor has spoken with Augustin Beeli" as compared to Engadinese {{lang|rm|Cun Rudolf Gasser ha discurrü Gion Peider Mischol}} "Rudolf Gasser has spoken with Gion Peider Mischol".{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=138}}

In contemporary spoken language, adjective forms are often not distinguished from adverbs, as in Sursilvan {{lang|rm|Jeu mon direct}} "I am going directly", rather than {{lang|rm|Jeu mon directamein}}. This usage is rare in most other Romance languages with a few sporadic exceptions as in French {{lang|fr|parler haut}} or Italian {{lang|it|vosà fort}} "speak aloud", and the common usage in colloquial Romansh is likely an influence from German.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=137}}

Especially noticeable and often criticized by language purists are particles such as {{lang|rm|aber}}, {{lang|rm|schon}}, {{lang|rm|halt}}, {{lang|rm|grad}}, {{lang|rm|eba}}, or {{lang|rm|zuar}}, which have become an integral part of everyday Romansh speech, especially in Sursilvan.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=145}}

Negation was originally formed by a double negative in all Romansh dialects. Today, this usage is limited to Surmiran as in {{lang|rm|ia na sa betg}} "I do not know" (it has also been included in panregional Rumantsch Grischun). While the first particle was lost in Sursilvan, where negation is now formed only with {{lang|rm|buc}} as in {{lang|rm|jeu sai buc}}, the Ladin varieties lost the second particle {{lang|rm|brich(a)}}, apparently under the influence of Italian, as in Putér {{lang|rm|eau nu se}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uffer |first=Leza |year=1948 |title=La Negaziun an Rumantsch-Surmeir: cuntribuziun agls studis da morfologia e sintaxa digl lungatg rumantsch |journal=Annalas da la Societad Retorumantscha |page=93 |doi=10.5169/seals-216932}}</ref>

=== Romansh influences on German ===
The influence of Romansh on the local vernacular German has not been studied as thoroughly as vice versa. Apart from place names throughout the former speech area of Romansh, only a handful of Romansh words have become part of wider German usage. Such words include {{lang|gsw|Gletscher}} "glacier" or {{lang|gsw|Murmeltier}} "marmot" (derived from Romansh {{lang|rm|murmunt}}), as well as culinary items such as [[Maluns]] or [[Capuns]]. The Romansh influence is much stronger in the German dialects of Grisons. It is sometimes controversially suspected that the pronunciation {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/h/}} in words such as {{lang|gsw|Khind}} and {{lang|gsw|bahe}}, as opposed to {{IPA|/x/}} in other Swiss German dialects ({{lang|gsw|Chind}} and {{lang|gsw|bache}}), is an influence of Romansh.<ref name="TDW2002">{{harvnb|Treffers-Daller|Willemyns|2002|pp=130–131}}</ref>

In morphosyntax, the use of the auxiliary verb {{lang|gsw|kho}} "to come" as opposed to {{lang|de|wird}} "will" in phrases such as {{lang|gsw|leg di warm a, sunscht khunscht krank}} ("put on warm clothes, otherwise you will get sick") in Grisons-German is sometimes attributed to Romansh, as well as the lack of a distinction between the accusative and dative case in some Grisons-German dialects and the word order in phrases such as {{lang|gsw|i tet froge jemand wu waiss}} ("I would ask someone who knows"). In addition, some words, neuter in most dialects of German, are masculine in Grisons-German. Examples include {{lang|gsw|der Brot}} "the bread" or {{lang|gsw|der Gäld}} "the money".<ref name="TDW2002" /> Common words of Romansh origin in Grisons-German include {{lang|gsw|Spus/Spüslig}} "bridegroom" and {{lang|gsw|Spus}} "bride", {{lang|gsw|Banitsch}} "cart used for moving dung", and {{lang|gsw|Pon}} "container made of wood". In areas where Romansh either is still spoken or has disappeared recently, Romansh words are even more common in the local dialects of German.

=== Attitudes towards language contact ===
The influence of German has been seen in different ways by linguists and language activists. The Italian dialectologist Ascoli for instance described Romansh as "a body that has lost its soul and taken on an entirely foreign one in its place" in the 1880s.<ref>{{harvnb|Liver|2009|p=145}}; Original Italian: {{lang|it|"un corpo che perde l'anima sua propria per assumerne un'altra di affatto estranea"}}</ref> This opinion was shared by many, who saw the influence of German as a threat to and corruption of Romansh, often referring to it as a disease infecting Romansh.{{sfn|Coray|2008}} This view was prevalent until after World War II, with many contemporary linguists and activists by contrast seeing these loan elements as completely natural and as an integral part of Romansh,{{sfn|Coray|2008|p=355}} which should be seen as an enrichment of the language.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=175}} This position is currently held among others by the language activists Bernard Cathomas, Iso Camartin, or Alexi Decurtins, who argue for a relaxed attitude towards loan elements, which they point out are often among the most down-to-earth elements of the language, and that the dual nature of Romansh can also be seen as an advantage in being open to cultural elements from both sides.{{sfn|Liver|2009|p=145}} This position is also shared by several contemporary authors in particular from the Surselva, such as [[Arno Camenisch]], who makes heavy use of Germanisms in his works.

== Literature, music and media ==
{{Main|Swiss literature#Romansh branch|l1=Romansh branch of Swiss literature}}

Romansh had a rich oral tradition before the appearance of Romansh writing, but apart from songs such as the ''Canzun da Sontga Margriata'', virtually none of it survives. Prior to the 16th century, Romansh writings are known from only a few fragments, although the Swiss Literary Archives do have a number of collections of Romansh literature, spanning from the late 19th to the early 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web|last=NL|first=Swiss National Library|title=Literary estates and archives in Romansh|url=https://www.nb.admin.ch/snl/en/home/ueber-uns/sla/nachlaesse-archive/raetoromanisch.html|access-date=2020-12-11|website=www.nb.admin.ch|language=en}}</ref>

The oldest known written records of Romansh dating from the period before 1500 are:
* the ''Würzburg manuscript'' (10th century);
* the ''Einsiedeln Homily'' dates from the early 12th century, discovered in 1907, and consists of a few lines, in an early form of the Romonsch dialect, of interlinear translation (with the original Latin text) of a sermon attributed to [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]];
* the ''Müstair linguistic monument'' dated 1389 and consisting of a fragment of a document about [[grazing rights]] on common land in the [[Val Müstair]], it is a court testimony in Romansh attested in an otherwise Latin document:
{{Quote|{{Col-begin|width=96% }}
{{Col-break}}
''Introekk in sum la vall de Favergatscha et introekk eintt la vall da Vafergatscha; la e vcinn faitt una puntt chun dis punt alta<br />e chun dis eintt feder Vinayr''{{Col-break}}
As far up as the Favergatscha valley and into the Vafergatscha valley. There where they are building a bridge which they call ''punt alta''<br />and what they call ''eintt feder Vinayr''".{{col-end}}
}}
[[File:SynopsisRumantsch.png|thumb|Synopsis on Romansh authors, by birth and idiom (including Rumantsch Grischun)]]

The first substantial surviving work in Romansh is the ''Chianzun dalla guerra dagl Chiaste da Müs'' written in the Putèr dialect in 1527 by [[Gian Travers]]. It is an epic poem describing the [[Musso war|First Musso war]] which Travers himself had taken part in.{{sfn|Liver|1999|p=95}}

Subsequent works usually have religious themes, including Bible translations, manuals for religious instructions, and biblical plays. In 1560, the first Romansh translation of the New Testament: ''L'g Nuof Sainc Testamaint da nos Signer Jesu Christ'' by [[Giachem Bifrun]], was published. Two years later, in 1562, another writer from the Engadine, [[Durich Chiampel]], published the ''Cudesch da Psalms'', a collection of Romansh church songs in the Vallader dialect. In the Sursilvan dialect, the first surviving works are also religious works such as catechism by [[Daniel Bonifaci]], and in 1611 ''Ilg Vêr Sulaz da pievel giuvan'' ("The true joys of young people"), a series of religious instructions for Protestant youths was published by [[Steffan Gabriel]]. Four years later in 1615, a Catholic catechism ''Curt Mussament'' was published in response, written by [[Gion Antoni Calvenzano]]. The first translation of the New Testament into Sursilvan was published in 1648 by the son of Steffan Gabriel, [[Luci Gabriel]]. The first complete translation of the Bible, the ''Bibla da Cuera'' was published between 1717 and 1719.

In music, choirs have a long tradition in the Romansh-speaking areas. Apart from traditional music and song, Romansh is also used in contemporary pop or hip-hop music, some of which has become known outside the Romansh-speaking regions, for instance, in the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1989]], Switzerland was represented by a Romansh song, ''Viver senza tei''. Since 2004, the hip-hop group [[Liricas Analas]] has become known even outside of Grisons through their Romansh songs. Other contemporary groups include the rock-band ''Passiunai'' with its lead singer [[Pascal Gamboni]], or the rock/pop band [[The Capoonz]]. Composer Gion Antoni Derungs has written three operas with Romansh librettos: ''Il cerchel magic'' (1986), ''Il semiader'' (1998) and ''Tredeschin'' (2000).
[[File:Engadinder-Post-Posta-Ladina.png|thumb|Front page of the ''Engadiner Post/Posta Ladina'' in February 2010.]]

Romansh is used to varying extents in newspapers, the radio, and television. Radio and television broadcasts in Romansh are produced by the [[Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha]], which is part of the Swiss public broadcasting company [[SRG SSR]]. The radio Radio Rumantsch broadcasts a 24-hour program including informational and music broadcasts. The broadcasters generally speak their own regional dialect on the air, which is considered a key factor in familiarizing Romansh speakers with the dialects outside their home region.{{sfn|Cathomas|2008|p=45}} News broadcasts are generally in the pan-regional variety [[Rumantsch Grischun]]. The two local radio stations [[Radio Grischa]] and [[Radio Engiadina]] occasionally broadcast in Romansh, but primarily use German. The Televisiun Rumantscha airs regular broadcasts on [[SF 1]], which are subtitled in German. Programs include the informational broadcast {{lang|rm|Telesguard}}, which is broadcast daily from Monday to Friday. The children's show {{lang|rm|Minisguard}} and the informational broadcast {{lang|rm|Cuntrasts}} are aired on weekends. Additionally, the shows {{lang|rm|Controvers}}, {{lang|rm|Pled sin via}}, and others are broadcast during irregular intervals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Über Uns |url=http://www.rtr.ch/home/utensils/internaziunal/de.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120301203126/http://www.rtr.ch/home/utensils/internaziunal/de.html |archive-date=2012-03-01 |access-date=2012-02-28 |website=Radiotelevisiun Svizra Rumantscha |language=de}}</ref>

The Romansh newspapers used to be heavily fragmented by regions and dialects. The more long-lived newspapers included the ''[[Gasetta Romontscha]]'' in the Surselva, the ''[[Fögl Ladin]]'' in the Engadine, ''[[Casa Paterna/La Punt]]'' in the Sutselva, and ''[[La Pagina da Surmeir]]'' in the Surmeir. Due to financial difficulties, most of these merged into a pan-regional daily newspaper called ''[[La Quotidiana]]'' in 1997. This newspaper includes articles in all five dialects and in Rumantsch Grischun. Apart from ''La Quotidiana'', ''La Pagina da Surmeir'' continues to be published to a regional audience, and the ''[[Engadiner Post]]'' includes two pages in Romansh. A Romansh [[news agency]], the [[Agentura da Novitads Rumantscha]], has been in existence since 1997.

Several Romansh-language magazines are also published regularly, including the youth magazine ''Punts'' and the yearly publications ''[[Calender Romontsch]]'' and ''[[Chalender Ladin]]''.

In September 2018, ''[[Amur senza fin]]'', the first-ever Romansh-language television film, debuted on Swiss national television.

== Sample text ==
The fable [[The Fox and the Crow (Aesop)|The Fox and the Crow]] by [[Aesop]] with a French version by [[Jean de La Fontaine]]; translated into the [[Dachsprache]] Rumantsch Grischun and all six dialects of Romansh: Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Puter, and the similar-looking but noticeably different-sounding dialects Vallader and Jauer,{{sfn|Gross|2004|p=29}} as well as a translation into [[English language|English]].

<br />
{| border="0" style="width:100%; font-family:serif; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"
|-
! style="width:12.5%;"|[[Rumantsch Grischun]] <br />{{Audio|Roh-rumantsch grischun-La vulp.ogg|audio}}
! style="width:12.5%;"|'''[[Sursilvan]]'''<br />{{Audio|Sursilvan-L'uolp.ogg|audio}}
! style="width:12.5%;"|'''[[Sutsilvan dialects (Romansh)|Sutsilvan]]'''
! style="width:12.5%;"|'''[[Surmiran]]'''
|-
|La vulp era puspè ina giada fomentada.<br />Qua ha ella vis sin in pign in corv che tegneva in toc chaschiel en ses pichel.<br />Quai ma gustass, ha ella pensà, ed ha clamà al corv: «Tge bel che ti es! Sche tes chant è uschè bel sco tia parita, lur es ti il pli bel utschè da tuts».
|L'uolp era puspei inagada fomentada.<br />Cheu ha ella viu sin in pegn in tgaper che teneva in toc caschiel en siu bec.<br />Quei gustass a mi, ha ella tertgau, ed ha clamau al tgaper: «Tgei bi che ti eis! Sche tiu cant ei aschi bials sco tia cumparsa, lu eis ti il pli bi utschi da tuts».
|La gualp eara puspe egn'eada fumantada.<br />Qua â ella vieu sen egn pegn egn corv ca taneva egn toc caschiel ainten sieus pecel.<br />Quegl gustass a mei, â ella tartgieu, ed ha clamo agli corv: «Tge beal ca tei es! Scha tieus tgànt e aschi beal sco tia pareta, alura es tei igl ple beal utschi da tuts».
|La golp era puspe eneda famantada.<br />Co ò ella via sen en pegn en corv tgi tigniva en toc caschiel an sies pecal. Chegl am gustess, ò ella panso, ed ò clamo agl corv: «Tge bel tgi te ist! Schi ties cant è schi bel scu tia parentscha, alloura ist te igl pi bel utschel da tots».
|}
<br />
{| border="0" style="width:100%; font-family:serif; font-size:100%; text-align:center;"
|-
! style="width:13.5%;"|'''[[Putèr]]'''<br />{{Audio|Roh-putèr-La vuolp.ogg|audio}}
! style="width:13%;"|'''[[Vallader]]'''<br />{{Audio|Roh-vallader-La vuolp.ogg|audio}}
! style="width:12.5%;"|'''[[Jauer dialect (Romansh)|Jauer]]'''
! style="width:11%;"|Translation
|-
|La vuolp d’eira darcho üna vouta famanteda.<br />Co ho'la vis sün ün pin ün corv chi tgnaiva ün töch chaschöl in sieu pical. Que am gustess, ho'la penso, ed ho clamo al corv: «Che bel cha tü est! Scha tieu chaunt es uschè bel scu tia apparentscha, alura est tü il pü bel utschè da tuots».
|La vuolp d'eira darcheu üna jada fomantada.<br />Qua ha'la vis sün ün pin ün corv chi tgnaiva ün toc chaschöl in seis pical. Quai am gustess, ha'la pensà, ed ha clomà al corv: «Che bel cha tü est! Scha teis chant es uschè bel sco tia apparentscha, lura est tü il plü bel utschè da tuots».
|La uolp d’era darchiau üna jada fomantada.<br />Qua ha’la vis sün ün pin ün corv chi tegnea ün toc chaschöl in ses pical. Quai ma gustess, ha’la s’impissà, ed ha clomà al corv: «Cha bel cha tü esch! Scha tes chaunt es ischè bel sco tia apparentscha, lura esch tü il pü bel utschè da tots».
|The fox was hungry yet again.<br />There, he saw a raven upon a fir holding a piece of cheese in its beak. This I would like, he thought, and shouted at the raven: "You are so beautiful! If your singing is as beautiful as your looks, then you are the most beautiful of all birds.".
|}

== See also ==
* [[Romansh exonyms]]
* [[Romance languages]]
* [[Societad Retorumantscha]]

== Notes ==
{{notefoot}}

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|20em}}

=== Sources ===
* {{cite book |last=Anderson |first=Stephen R. |chapter=Romansh (Rumantsch) |title=The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages |editor1-first=Adam |editor1-last=Ledgeway |editor2-first=Martin |editor2-last=Maiden |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2016 |pages=169–84}}
* {{cite book |last=Billigmeier |first=Robert Henry |title=Land und Volk der Rätoromanen |trans-title=Land and people of the Romansh |year=1983 |publisher=Huber Frauenfeld |language=de |isbn=978-3-7193-0882-7}}
* Bundesamt für Statistik. (2021, 25 January). Hauptsprachen in der Schweiz, 2019. Downloaded from https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/de/home/statistiken/bevoelkerung/sprachen-religionen/sprachen.assetdetail.15384655.html [Accessed 16 April 2021].
* {{cite journal |last=Cathomas |first=Bernard |author-link=:de:Bernard Cathomas |title=Der Weg zu einer gemeinsamen romanischen Schriftsprache. Entstehung, Ausbau und Verbreitung des Rumantsch Grischun |trans-title=The way to a common Romance written language. Origin, development and dissemination of the Rumantsch Grischun |journal=Bündner Monatsblatt Zeitschrift für Bündner Geschichte, Landeskunde und Baukultur |year=2012 |place=Chur |publisher=Bündner Monatsblatt 1/2012 |language=de |issn=1011-6885}}
* {{cite book |last=Cathomas |first=Regula |title=Sprachgebrauch im Alltag – Die Verwendung des Rätoromanischen in verschiedenen Domänen: Wechselwirkungen und Einflussfaktoren |trans-title=Language use in everyday life - The use of Romansh in different domains: interactions and influencing factors |year=2008 |place=Chur |publisher=Institut für Kulturforschung Graubünden |language=de |isbn=978-3-905342-42-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Coray |first=Renata |title=Von der Mumma Romontscha zum Retortenbaby Rumantsch Grischun: Rätoromanische Sprachmythen |trans-title=From Mumma Romontscha to test-tube baby Rumantsch Grischun: Romansh language myths |year=2008 |place=Chur |publisher=Institut für Kulturforschung Graubünden ikg |language=de |isbn=978-3-905342-43-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Decurtins |first=Alexi |title=Rätoromanisch I: Aufsätze zur Sprach-, Kulturgeschichte und zur Kulturpolitik |trans-title=Rhaeto-romance I: Essays on language, cultural history and cultural policy |year=1993 |place=Chur |publisher=Società Retorumantscha |language=de}}
* {{cite book |last=Deplazes |first=Gion |title=Die Rätoromanen: Ihre Identität in der Literatur |trans-title=The Romansh: Their Identity in Literature |year=1991 |place=Chur |publisher=Desertina |language=de |isbn=978-3-85637-199-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Furer |first=Jean-Jacques |title=Eidgenössische Volkszählung 2000&nbsp;– Die aktuelle Lage des Romanischen |trans-title=Federal Census 2000 - The current situation of Romansh |url=https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/dienstleistungen/publikationen_statistik/publikationskatalog.Document.66870.pdf |year=2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515110402/https://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/dienstleistungen/publikationen_statistik/publikationskatalog.Document.66870.pdf |place=Neuchâtel |publisher=Bundesamt für Statistik |language=de |isbn=978-3-303-01202-4 |archive-date=2013-05-15 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gross |first=Manfred |url=http://www.liarumantscha.ch/data/media/pdf/facts_figures/facts_figures_english.pdf |title=Romanisch: Facts & Figures |date=2004 |publisher=Lia Rumantscha |isbn=3-03900-037-3 |location=Chur |language=en |translator-last=Evans |translator-first=Mike |access-date=2021-09-23 |translator-last2=Evans |translator-first2=Barbara |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104161427/http://www.liarumantscha.ch/data/media/pdf/facts_figures/facts_figures_english.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-04}}
* {{cite book |title=Das Funktionieren der Dreisprachigkeit im Kanton Graubünden |trans-title=The functioning of trilingualism in the canton of Graubünden |year=2008 |editor1-last=Grünert |editor1-first=Matthias |series=Romanica Helvetica, 127 |place=Tübingen |publisher=Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH + Co. KG |language=de |isbn=978-3-7720-8303-7 |editor2-last=Picenoni |editor2-first=Mathias |editor3-last=Cathomas |editor3-first=Regula |editor4-last=Gadmer |editor4-first=Thomas |display-editors=3}}
* {{cite book |last=Kraas |first=Frauke |title=Die Rätoromanen Graubündens: Peripherisierung einer Minderheit |trans-title=The Romansh of Graubünden: peripheralization of a minority |year=1992 |place=Stuttgart |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |language=de |isbn=978-3-515-06089-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Kundert |first=Mathias |title=Der Sprachwechsel im Domleschg und am Heinzenberg (19./20. Jahrhundert) |trans-title=The language change in Domleschg and Heinzenberg (19th/20th century) |year=2007 |place=Chur |publisher=Kommissionsverlag Desertina |language=de |isbn=978-3-85637-340-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Lechmann |first=Gion |title=Rätoromanische Sprachbewegung – Die Geschichte der Lia Rumantscha von 1919–1996 |trans-title=Romansh language movement - The history of the Lia Rumantscha from 1919-1996 |year=2004 |series=Studien zur Zeitgeschichte, Band 6 |place=Frauenfeld |publisher=Verlag Huber |language=de |isbn=978-3-7193-1370-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Liver |first=Ricarda |author-link=:de:Ricarda Liver |title=Rätoromanisch&nbsp;– Eine Einführung in das Bündnerromanische |trans-title=Rhaeto-Romance&nbsp;- An introduction to Graubünden Romansh |year=1999 |place=Tübingen |publisher=Gunter Narr |language=de |isbn=978-3-8233-4973-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Liver |first=Ricarda |author-link=:de:Ricarda Liver |chapter=Deutsch Einflüsse im Bündnerromanischen |trans-chapter=German influences in Romansh |title=Deutsch und seine Nachbarn |trans-title=German and its neighbors |year=2009 |editor-last=Elmentaler |editor-first=Michael |publisher=Peter Lang |language=de |isbn=978-3-631-58885-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Mützenberg |first=Gabriel |title=Destin de la langue et de la littérature rhéto-romanes |trans-title=Fate of the Rhaeto-Romance language and literature |year=1974 |place=Lausanne |publisher=Editions L'Age d'Homme |language=fr}}
* {{cite book |title=Die viersprachige Schweiz |trans-title=Four-language Switzerland |year=1984 |editor-last=Arquint |editor-first=Jachen Curdin |edition=1 |place=Zürich |publisher=Ex Libris |language=de |editor2-last=Schläpfer |editor2-first=Robert}}
* {{cite book |title=Die viersprachige Schweiz |trans-title=Four-language Switzerland |year=2000 |editor-last=Schläpfer |editor-first=Robert |series=Sprachlandschaft, Band 25 |edition=2 |place=Aarau |publisher=Verlag Sauerländer |language=de |isbn=978-3-7941-3696-4 |editor2-last=Bickel |editor2-first=Hans}}
* {{cite book |last=Stich |first=Dominique |title=Parlons Romanche. La quatrième langue officielle de la Suisse |year=2007 |place=Paris |publisher=L'Harmattan |language=fr |isbn=978-2-296-03416-7}}
* {{cite book |title=Language Contact at the Romance-Germanic Language Border |year=2002 |editor-last=Treffers-Daller |editor-first=Jeanine |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1853596278 |editor2-last=Willemyns |editor2-first=Roland}}

== External links ==
{{Interwiki|code=rm}}
{{Incubator|rm|Wiktionary}}
{{wiktionarycat|type=Romansh|category=Romansch language}}
{{commons category|Romansh language}}
* [http://www.liarumantscha.ch Website of the ''Lia Rumantscha'' organization]
* [http://www.rtr.ch/ Radio Televisiun Rumantscha]
* [http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/specials/romansh/index.html?siteSect=21020 Series of articles about Romansh from swissinfo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218054611/http://www.swissinfo.org/eng/specials/romansh/index.html?siteSect=21020 |date=2007-02-18 }}
* [http://www.e-lir.ch Lexicon Istoric Retic (LIR)] – Encyclopedia about Switzerland. Partial translation of the [[Historical Dictionary of Switzerland]] in Romansh with additional articles.
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ier\rom&first=0 Romansh basic lexicon (several dialects) at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]
* Dictionaries
** [http://www.mypledari.ch/ Romansh-English, with different Romansh dialects]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20060804160546/http://pledarigrond.ch/ Romansh-German/German-Romansh]

{{Languages of Switzerland}}
{{Rhaeto-Romance languages}}
{{Romance languages}}
{{Switzerland topics}}
{{Portal bar|Language|Switzerland}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Romansh language| ]]
[[Category:Grisons]]
[[Category:Culture of Graubünden]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Definitely endangered languages]]
[[Category:Rhaeto-Romance languages]]

Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page (help):

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Geography of Switzerland (edit)
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