View source for Philippine Hokkien

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{{Short description|Dialect of Hokkien spoken in the Philippines}}
{{more citations needed|article|date=June 2016}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=January 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Philippine Hokkien
| nativename       = {{lang|zh|咱人話 / 咱儂話 }} <br> ''Lán-lâng-uē / Lán-nâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē'' {{font|size=70%|([[Tai-lo|Tâi-lô]])}} <br> ''Lán-lâng-ōe / Lán-nâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe'' {{font|size=70%|([[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]])}}
| states           = [[Philippines]]
| region           = [[Metro Manila]], [[Metro Cebu]], [[Metro Davao]], [[Zamboanga City]], [[Cagayan de Oro]], [[Metro Bacolod]], [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]], [[Jolo, Sulu|Jolo]], [[Tacloban]], [[Angeles City]], [[Vigan]], [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga]], [[Iligan]], [[Ilagan]], [[Baguio]], [[Bohol]], [[Laoag]], [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]], [[Rizal (province)|Rizal]], [[Lucena]], [[Cotabato City|Cotabato]], and many other parts of the Philippines
| ref              = 
| date             = 
| speakers         = ?
| familycolor      = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2             = [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic]]
| fam3             = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| fam4             = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| fam5             = [[Min Chinese#Coastal Min|Coastal Min]]
| fam6             = [[Southern Min]]
| fam7             = [[Hokkien]]
| fam8             = [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan language|Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2        = [[Old Chinese]]{{efn|name=minClassification|Min is believed to have split from Old Chinese, rather than Middle Chinese like other varieties of Chinese.<ref>{{citation |last=Mei |first=Tsu-lin |author1-link=Mei Tsu-lin |title=Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |year=1970 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |year=1984 |page=3 |location=Vancouver |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8}}</ref><ref name="glottoMin">{{Cite journal |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |title=Glottolog 4.8 - Min |date=2023-07-10 |access-date=2023-10-13 |website=[[Glottolog]] |last1=Hammarström |first1=Harald |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013171747/https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/minn1248 |archive-date=2023-10-13 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] |author-link=Harald Hammarström |last2=Forkel |first2=Robert |publication-place=[[Leipzig]] |doi=10.5281/zenodo.7398962 |last3=Haspelmath |first3=Martin |author-link3=Martin Haspelmath |last4=Bank |first4=Sebastian |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}
| ancestor3        = [[Proto-Min]]
| script           = * [[Chinese characters]] ([[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]])<br/>
* [[Latin script]] 
** Ad hoc methods,''<br/>''Sporadic use of varying borrowed [[orthographies]] from local or former ''[[lingua franca]]s'', such as:
*** [[English orthography|English]]{{efn|name=english status|[[Languages of the Philippines#National and official languages|Co-official language]] of the Philippines}}
*** [[Filipino orthography|Filipino]]{{efn|name=filipino status|[[Languages of the Philippines#National and official languages|National and co-official language]] of the Philippines}}
*** [[Pinyin|Mandarin]]{{efn|name=mandarin status|[[Philippine Mandarin]] as taught in [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]]}}
*** [[Spanish orthography|Spanish]]{{efn|name=spanish status|[[Languages of the Philippines#National and official languages|Historical official language]] of the Philippines since the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial era]], currently "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis" per the [[Constitution of the Philippines|1987 Constitution]]}}
** [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]] (''sporadic'')
** [[Tâi-lô]] (''sporadic'')
| glotto           = none
| lingua           = 79-AAA-jek
| isoexception     = dialect
| image            = Manila China Town, 711 Ongpin Street, Manila, Philippines (1949).jpg
| imagecaption     = Ongpin St., [[Binondo]], [[Manila]] (1949)
| iso3comment      = {{code|nan}} for [[Southern Min]] / [[Min Nan]] which encompasses a variety of Hokkien dialects including "Lannang" / "Lán-lâng-ōe" / "咱人話" / "Philippine Hokkien".<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan] |website = [[GitHub]] |url = https://github.com/KIRINPUTRA/reclassifying-ISO-639-3-nan/blob/main/Reclassifying_ISO_639-3_%5Bnan%5D__An_Empirical_Approach_to_Mutual_Intelligibility_and_Ethnolinguistic_Distinctions.pdf |date = 31 August 2021 | access-date= 28 July 2022}}</ref>
| iso3             = none
}}
'''Philippine Hokkien'''{{efn|also known as '''Lannang-Oe''' ({{zh|t=咱人話 / 咱儂話|poj=Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe|l=Our People's Speech}}),<ref name="PhilH Study">{{Cite thesis |last=Tsai |first=Hui-Ming 蔡惠名 |title=Fēilǜbīn zán rén huà (Lán-lâng-uē) yánjiū |date=2017 |degree=PhD |publisher=National Taiwan Normal University |url=https://etds.lib.ntnu.edu.tw/thesis/detail/d9babe778274fb8c4ffabf34d9067b40/ |language=zh |script-title=zh:菲律賓咱人話（Lán-lâng-uē）研究 |trans-title=A Study of Philippine Hokkien Language}}</ref><ref name="Taiwanese Grammar" /> '''Fukien''',<ref name="Chan Yap 1980">{{Cite book |last=Chan Yap |first=Gloria |url=https://archive.org/details/hokkienchinesebo0000chan |title=Hokkien Chinese Borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |location=Canberra |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref> and '''Fookien'''<ref name="PhilH Study" />}} is a dialect of the [[Hokkien]] language of the [[Southern Min]] branch of [[Min Chinese]] descended directly from [[Old Chinese]] of the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic family]], primarily spoken [[vernacular]]ly by [[Chinese Filipino]]s in the [[Philippines]], where it serves as the local [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''[[lingua franca]]''<ref name="phinquirer">{{cite news |author=Go, Josiah |date=April 17, 2017 |title=Chinese education redefined |url=https://business.inquirer.net/227848/chinese-education-redefined |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170419033154/https://business.inquirer.net/227848/chinese-education-redefined |archive-date=April 19, 2017 |accessdate=November 22, 2021 |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]}}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite journal |last=Poa |first=Dory（潘露莉） |year=2004 |editor-last=Dai |editor-first=Qingxia |title=从四语人到双语人：论菲律宾华校的多语教学 (From Quadrilingual to Bilingual: On the Multilingual Teaching in the Chinese Schools in the Philippines) |url=https://www.lannangarchives.org/items/0f545351-247b-45f2-900c-f4802ec14499 |journal=Bilingual Studies |location=Beijing |publisher=Minzu Chubanshe |volume=2}}</ref> within the [[overseas Chinese]] community in the Philippines and acts as the [[heritage language]] of a majority of [[Chinese Filipinos]].<ref name="Palanca">{{Cite journal|last=Palanca|first=Ellen H.|year=2002|title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia*|url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|journal=Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=2|pages=31|via=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia}}</ref> Despite currently acting mostly as an [[oral language]], Hokkien as spoken in the Philippines did indeed historically have a [[written language]] and is actually one of the earliest sources for [[written Hokkien]] using both [[Chinese characters]] (traditionally via [[Classical Chinese]] ({{zh|t=漢文|poj=Hàn-bûn|labels=no}}) worded from and read in [[Hokkien]])<ref name=":11" /> as early as around 1587<ref name=":02" /> or 1593<ref name=":Catálogo BNE" /> through the ''[[Doctrina Christiana|Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china]]'' and using the [[Latin script]] as early as the 1590s in the [[Boxer Codex]] and was actually the earliest to systematically [[Romanization|romanize]] the Hokkien language throughout the 1600s in the Hokkien-Spanish works<ref name=":02" /> of the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]] especially by the [[Dominican Order]], such as in the ''Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum'' (1626-1642)<ref name=":12" /> and the ''Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu'' (1620)<ref name=":13" /> among others. The use of Hokkien in the [[Philippines]] was historically influenced by [[Philippine Spanish]],<ref name="Klöter c2011" /><ref name="Van der Loon 1966">{{harvp|Van der Loon|1966}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and [[Philippine English]].<ref name="PhilH Study" /> As a ''lingua franca'' of the overseas Chinese community in the Philippines, the minority of Chinese Filipinos of [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] and [[Taishanese people|Taishanese]] descent also uses Philippine Hokkien for business purposes due to its status as "the [[Chinese Filipino|Chinoy]] business language" [<nowiki/>[[sic]]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Chow |first=Chino |date=June 10, 2020 |title=Chow: The Cantonese–Chinese cultural minority in the Philippines |work=SunStar |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/ampArticle/1859719 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219141825/https://www.sunstar.com.ph/ampArticle/1859719 |archive-date=February 19, 2023}}</ref> It is also used as a [[liturgical language]] as one of the languages that [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Chinese Filipino churches typically minister in with their [[church service]], which they sometimes also minister to students in [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]] that they also usually operate.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Uayan |first=Dr. Jean Uy (Professor on Chinese Filipino Church History) |date=July 15, 2014 |title=The "Amoy Mission": Lessons and Reflections |url=https://bsop.edu.ph/the-amoy-mission-lessons-and-reflections/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601125802/https://bsop.edu.ph/the-amoy-mission-lessons-and-reflections/ |archive-date=June 1, 2023 |access-date=April 13, 2024 |website=BSOP Biblical Seminary of the Philippines}}</ref> It is also a [[liturgical language]] primarily used by [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]], [[Taoism|Taoist]], and [[Mazu|Matsu]] [[Chinese folk religion in Southeast Asia|veneration]] temples in the Philippines, especially in their [[sutra]] chanting services and temple sermons by monastics.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book |last=Dy |first=Aristotle C. |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/17352/1/Dy_3537.pdf |title=Marginal Buddhists: Religion and Identity of a Chinese Minority in the Philippines (PhD Thesis) |publisher=Department of the Study of Religions, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |year=2013}}</ref>

{{Infobox Chinese
| title = Philippine Hokkien
| t = {{linktext|咱人話}} / {{linktext|咱儂話|}}
| tl = Lán-nâng-uē / Lán-lâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē
| poj = Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe
| p = 
| altname = Alternative Name (Philippine Hokkien)
| t2 = {{linktext|菲律賓|福建話}}
| tl2 = Hui-li̍p-pin Hok-kiàn-uē
| poj2 = Hui-li̍p-pin Hok-kiàn-ōe
| showflag = poj
| p2 = Fēilǜbīn Fújiànhuà
| altname3 = Alternative Name (Philippine Min Nan)
| t3 = {{linktext|菲律賓|閩南話}}
| p3 = Fēilǜbīn Mǐnnánhuà
| poj3 = Hui-li̍p-pin Bân-lâm-ōe
| tl3 = Hui-li̍p-pin Bân-lâm-uē
| l = Our People's Speech
| l2 = Philippine Hokkien Speech
| l3 = Philippine Southern Min Speech
}}
{{Culture of the Philippines}}

==Terminology==
The term ''Philippine Hokkien'' is used when differentiating the variety of [[Hokkien]] spoken in the [[Philippines]] from those spoken in [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], and other [[Southeast Asia]]n countries.<ref name="Hokaglish">{{Cite conference |last=Gonzales |first=Wilkinson Daniel Wong |date=2016 |title=Exploring Trilingual Code-Switching: The Case of 'Hokaglish' |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED566700.pdf |conference=The 26th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, Manila, Philippines |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Taiwanese Grammar">{{Cite book |last=Lin |first=Philip T. |title=Taiwanese Grammar: A Concise Reference |date=2015 |publisher=Greenhorn Media |isbn=978-0-9963982-1-3 |language=en}}</ref>

Historically, it was also known in [[Philippine English]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), and other [[Philippine languages]] as ''Fookien''<ref name="PhilH Study" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Wangli |first=John |title=Speak Chinese-Filipino-English 菲英中口语速成: The fastest and easiest way |publisher=World Link Books |year=2002 |isbn=971-92004-1-3}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Johnny C. |title=Keeping Up With Your Chinese Filipino 中菲英語言會話大全書 Sanayan Aklat sa Pagsasalita ng Intsik Ingles |publisher=Pharoah Enterprises |year=1994 |isbn=9719-026-11-1 |volume=1 |location=San Juan, Metro Manila}}</ref> or ''Fukien''<ref name="Chan Yap 1980">{{Cite book |last=Chan Yap |first=Gloria |url=https://archive.org/details/hokkienchinesebo0000chan |title=Hokkien Chinese Borrowings in Tagalog |date=1980 |publisher=Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University |isbn=9780858832251 |location=Canberra |language=en |url-access=registration}}</ref> or ''Fukienese''<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |title=菲英漢綜合字典 The Pilipino-English-Chinese Dictionary |publisher=Luminaire Printing & Publishing Corp. |year=1989 |isbn=971-91128-1-6 |editor-last=Chen |editor-first=Annie |location=Parañaque City}}</ref> across the country, derived from the [[Chinese postal romanization]] of the [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Nanjing court dialect]] [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] reading of [[Fujian]] province in [[Mainland China|China]], such as in the old newspaper, ''[[The Fookien Times]]''. It was historically and is still also called as just ''"Chinese"''<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Betty |title=Speak Chinese Fujianwa Easy 闽语会话手册 |isbn=971-91128-6-7}}</ref><ref name=":8" /> in [[English language|English]] or ''"Intsik"''<ref name=":7" /> and ''"Tsino"''<ref name=":7" /> in [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]), usually generalized to refer to [[Sinitic languages|Chinese languages]] in general, usually by those unfamiliar with the [[Hokkien]] language compared with other Chinese languages or to promote to such people. It was also historically and is still formally and conservatively known as ''"Amoy"'',<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Gobonseng |first=Victoria W. Peralta-Ang |title=Amoy Vernacular Handbook |publisher=Dumaguete AV Publishing House |year=2003 |isbn=971-92742-0-4 |edition=Revised |volume=1 |location=Dumaguete}}</ref> usually by [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Chinese Filipino]] churches and schools who conduct ''"Amoy Worship Service"'' or ''"Chinese Worship Service"'' as part of their [[liturgy]],<ref name=":5" /> despite the danger of confusing the [[Amoy dialect]] of Hokkien compared to the [[Hokkien]] language in general, although these protestant Chinese Filipino churches also do indeed occasionally use abstract [[liturgical]] terms from the [[Amoy dialect]] of Hokkien too from time to time and also typically use [[Bible|bibles]] and [[Hymnal|hymnal books]] from [[Xiamen|Xiamen (Amoy)]] typically written in the [[Amoy dialect]] of Hokkien.

The [[Endonym and exonym|endonym]] used by speakers of the dialect itself or the [[Hokkien]] language in general though is typically, {{zh|t=[[wikt:咱人話|咱人話]] / [[wikt:咱儂話|咱儂話]]|poj=Lán-nâng-ōe / Lán-lâng-ōe / Nán-nâng-ōe}}; [[Tâi-uân Lô-má-jī Phing-im Hong-àn|Tâi-lô]]: ''Lán-nâng-uē / Lán-lâng-uē / Nán-nâng-uē.<ref name="PhilH Study" />''

==Sociolinguistics==
Only 12.2% of all ethnic Chinese in the Philippines have a [[Varieties of Chinese|variety of Chinese]] as their [[First language|mother tongue]]. Nevertheless, the vast majority (77%) still retain the ability to understand and speak Hokkien as a [[Second language|second]] or [[Third language acquisition|third language]].<ref name="See 1997 p57">{{Cite book |last=See |first=Teresita Ang |title=The Chinese in the Philippines: Problems and Perspectives |date=1997 |publisher=Kaisa Para Sa Kaunlaran |location=Manila |page=57 |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales 天主教真傳實錄 (1593).png|thumb|First page of ''Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales'' (天主教真傳實錄), in [[Classical Chinese]] by Fr. [[Juan Cobo]], published posthumously in 1593, Manila,<ref name=":Catálogo BNE2">{{Cite book |last=Cobo |first=Fr. Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |url=http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702&page=1 |title=Apología de la verdadera religión 天主教真傳實錄 (Veritable Record of the Catholic Tradition) |publisher= |year=1593 |location=Manila |language= |via=Catálogo BNE ([[Biblioteca Nacional de España]])}}</ref> with resemblance to the style of the Tagalog and Hokkien ''[[Doctrina Christiana]]'' published in the same year<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" />]]
From the late 16th century to the early 17th century, [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars in the Philippines]], such as the [[Dominican Order]] and [[Jesuits]] specifically in [[Manila]], produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century:<ref name="Chappell Peyraube 2006">{{Cite book |last1=Chappell |first1=Hilary |title=Linguistic Studies in Chinese and Neighboring Languages |last2=Peyraube |first2=Alain |date=2006 |publisher=Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica |editor-last=Ho |editor-first=D.-a. |location=Taipei |pages=973–1011 |language=en |chapter=The Analytic Causatives of Early Modern Southern Min in Diachronic Perspective |editor-last2=Cheung |editor-first2=S. |editor-last3=Pan |editor-first3=W. |editor-last4=Wu |editor-first4=F. |chapter-url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00180707}}</ref><ref name="Klöter c2011">{{harvp|Klöter|2011}}</ref>

*''Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China'' (1593), by [[Miguel de Benavides]] and Juan Cobo, a Hokkien version of the ''[[Doctrina Christiana]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Yue |first=Anne O. |title=Contemporary Studies on the Min Dialects |date=1999 |publisher=Chinese University Press |series=Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series 14 |pages=42–76 |language=en |chapter=The Min Translation of the ''Doctrina Christiana'' |jstor=23833463 |issue=14}}</ref><ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |url=http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/tgb/thak.asp?id=178 |title=Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China, compuesta por los padres ministros de los Sangleyes, de la Orden de Sancto Domingo |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |author-link2=Miguel de Benavides |date=1593 |publisher=Keng Yong |location=Manila |language=[[Early Modern Spanish]] & [[Hokkien|Early Manila Hokkien]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321151436/http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/tgb/thak.asp?id=178 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |via=[[National Taichung University of Education]]}}</ref><ref name=":Catálogo BNE">{{Cite book |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |url=https://ustdigitallibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/section7/id/39614 |title=Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua China, compuesta por los padres ministros de los Sangleyes, de la Orden de Sancto Domingo |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |author-link2=Miguel de Benavides |date=1593 |publisher=Keng Yong |location=Manila |language=[[Early Modern Spanish]] & [[Hokkien|Early Manila Hokkien]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719042436/https://ustdigitallibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/section7/id/39614 |archive-date=July 19, 2024 |via=[[University of Santo Tomas|UST]] Digital Library of the [[Miguel de Benavides Library|Miguel de Benavides Library and Archives]]}}</ref>
*''Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales'' (1593), by [[Juan Cobo]], a mostly [[Classical Chinese]] work written to transmit [[Roman Catholicism]] and western scientific knowledge to [[Hoklo people|Hokkien]] [[Sangley|Sangleyes]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cobo |first=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |url=http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702 |title=Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales |publisher=[[Dominican Order|Dominican Order of Preachers]] |year=1593 |location=Manila |language=lzh, es-ear |via=Biblioteca Digital Hispánica of Catálogo BNE ([[Biblioteca Nacional de España]])}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cobo |first=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |year=2021 |orig-date=1593 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Fabio Yuchung（李毓中） |editor2-last=Chen |editor2-first=Tsung-jen |editor3-last=Caño |editor3-first=José Luis Ortigosa |editor4-last=Shih |editor4-first=Wen-cheng（石文誠） |others=Original Manuscript kept as ''天主教真傳實錄 Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales'' on the label with other variant names including "Shih-Lu", "Bian zheng jiao zhen chuan shi lu / seng shi Hemu Xian zhuan", "Apología de la verdadera religión", "Tratado de la verdad de Dios" in [[Biblioteca Nacional de España]] |title=Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales |url=https://thup.site.nthu.edu.tw/p/406-1210-221689,r10563.php?Lang=en |journal=Hokkien Spanish Historical Document Series III: Rectificación y Mejora de Principios Naturales |location=Manila |publisher=[[National Tsing Hua University|National Tsing Hua University Press]] |publication-place=Hsinchu |isbn=9789866116964 |via=[[National Tsing Hua University|NTHU Press]]}}</ref>
*''Espejo Rico del Claro Corazón—Beng Sim Po Cam'' (1590s), by Juan Cobo and Miguel de Benavides, a Hokkien book of proverbs and warnings from various texts for children's enlightenment and moral guidance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |author-link2=Miguel de Benavides |orig-date=1590s |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Fabio Yuchung（李毓中） |editor2-last=Chen |editor2-first=Tsung-jen（陳宗仁） |editor3-last=Caño |editor3-first=José Luis Ortigosa |editor4-last=Shih |editor4-first=Wen-cheng（石文誠） |others=This is a translated transcription of the Beng Sim Po Cam kept as part of a collection of the [[Biblioteca Nacional de España]] in Madrid |title=Espejo Rico del Claro Corazón—Beng Sim Po Cam |url=https://thup.site.nthu.edu.tw/p/406-1210-221682,r10563.php?Lang=en |journal=Hokkien Spanish Historical Document Series III: Espejo Rico del Claro Corazón—Beng Sim Po Cam |location=Manila |publisher=[[National Tsing Hua University|National Tsing Hua University Press]] |publication-place=Hsinchu |publication-date=2021 |isbn=9789866116971 |via=[[National Tsing Hua University|NTHU Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |author-link=Juan Cobo |url=http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000058860&page=1 |title=Espejo Rico del Claro Corazón—Beng Sim Po Cam |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |author-link2=Miguel de Benavides |publisher=[[Dominican Order|Dominican Order of Preachers]] |year=1590s |isbn=9789866116971 |location=Manila |via=Biblioteca Digital Hispánica of Catálogo BNE ([[Biblioteca Nacional de España]])}}</ref>
*''Dictionarium Sino Hispanicum'' (1604), by [[Pedro Chirino]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chirino |first=Pedro |author-link=Pedro Chirino |year=2022 |orig-date=1604 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Fabio Yuchung (李毓中) |editor2-last=Chen |editor2-first=Tsung-jen (陳宗仁) |editor3-last=José |editor3-first=Regalado Trota |editor4-last=Caño |editor4-first=José Luis Ortigosa |editor5-last=Shih |editor5-first=Wen-cheng（石文誠） |editor6-last=Ng |editor6-first=Louis Ianchun（吳昕泉） |others=Original manuscript is part of a collection of the [[Biblioteca Angelica]] in Rome, Italy |title=Dictionarium Sino-Hispanicum |url=https://thup.site.nthu.edu.tw/p/406-1210-243479,r10563.php?Lang=en&fbclid=IwZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAR2o2V8lGRmnHzQHNx8z1CEATg6IojsKIXwofmSdZ-cozxnJnNzCz2JMtXI_aem_vzeFktl8Kbu8YKrur_FE0A |journal=Hokkien Spanish Historical Document Series IV: Dictionarium Sino-Hispanicum |location=Manila |publisher=[[National Tsing Hua University|National Tsing Hua University Press]] |publication-place=Hsinchu |isbn=9786269632558 |via=[[National Tsing Hua University|NTHU Press]]}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Fabio Yuchung |last2=José |first2=Regalado Trota |last3=Caño |first3=José Luis Ortigosa |last4=Chang |first4=Luisa |date=August 12, 2023 |title=1. Taiwan. Mesa Redonda. Fabio Yuchung Lee, José Regalado, Luisa Chang |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tcp2wQZGyNk&t=1224s&ab_channel=%40Fundaci%C3%B3nDuquesdeSoria |website=Youtube |language=Spanish, Mandarin}}</ref>
*''Vocabulary & Grammar Chin-Cheu'' (1600s)<ref>{{Cite journal |orig-date=1600s |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Fabio Yuchung (李毓中) |editor2-last=Klöter |editor2-first=Henning |editor3-last=Chen |editor3-first=Tsung-jen (陳宗仁) |editor4-last=Caño |editor4-first=José Luis Ortigosa |editor5-last=Shih |editor5-first=Wen-cheng（石文誠） |editor6-last=José |editor6-first=Regalado Trota |editor7-last=Ng |editor7-first=Louis Ianchun（吳昕泉） |title=Vocabulary & Grammar Chin-Cheu |url=https://thup.site.nthu.edu.tw/p/406-1210-261618,r10563.php?Lang=en |journal=Hokkien Spanish Historical Document Series V: Vocabulary & Grammar Chin-Cheu |location=Manila |publisher=[[National Tsing Hua University|National Tsing Hua University Press]] |publication-place=Hsinchu |publication-date=2023 |isbn=9786269724956 |via=[[National Tsing Hua University|NTHU Press]]}}</ref>
*''Vocabulario de la Lengua Española y China / Vocabulario Hispanico y Chinico''<ref name=":3" />
*''Bocabulario de la lengua sangleya por las letraz de el A.B.C.'' (1617), a Spanish-Hokkien dictionary, with definitions.<ref name=":3" />
*''Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu'' (1620), a Spanish-Hokkien grammar book.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book |last1=Mançano |first1=Melchior |url=https://bipadi.ub.edu/digital/collection/manuscrits/id/29622/rec/1 |title=Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu |last2=Feyjoó |first2=Raymundo |year=1620 |via=Universitat de Barcelona}}</ref>
*''Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum'' (1626-1642), a primarily Spanish-Hokkien dictionary (with additional incomplete [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] part), giving equivalent words, but not definitions.<ref>{{Cite journal |year=2018 |orig-date=1626-1642 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Fabio Yuchung (李毓中) |editor2-last=Chen |editor2-first=Tsung-jen (陳宗仁) |editor3-last=José |editor3-first=Regalado Trota |editor4-last=Caño |editor4-first=José Luis Ortigosa |others=Original Work by the [[Dominican Order|Dominican Order of Preachers]], kept as ''Vocabulario Español-Chino con caracteres chinos (TOMO 215)'' in the [[University of Santo Tomas#Libraries and archives|University of Santo Tomás Archives]] |title=Dictionario Hispánico-Sinicum |url=https://thup.site.nthu.edu.tw/p/406-1210-151863,r10563.php?Lang=en |journal=Hokkien Spanish Historical Document Series I: Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum |language=es-ear, nan-hbl, lzh-cmn |location=Manila |publisher=[[National Tsing Hua University|National Tsing Hua University Press]] |publication-place=Hsinchu |isbn=9789866116742 |via=[[National Tsing Hua University|NTHU Press]]}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite news |last=Zulueta |first=Lito B. |date=February 8, 2021 |title=World's Oldest and Largest Spanish-Chinese Dictionary Found in UST |url=https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/378777/worlds-oldest-and-largest-spanish-chinese-dictionary-found-in-ust/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230608051054/https://lifestyle.inquirer.net/378777/worlds-oldest-and-largest-spanish-chinese-dictionary-found-in-ust/ |archive-date=June 8, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |language=en}}</ref>
*''Vocabulario de letra china'' (1643), by Francisco Diaz<ref name=":3" />

These texts appear to record a dialect descended primarily from a coastal [[Zhangzhou dialect|Chiangchiu (Zhangzhou) dialect]] of Hokkien, specifically modern-day [[Haicheng, Fujian|Haicheng]] ({{zh|t=海澄|poj=Hái-têng|labels=no}}) from the area around the old port of [[Yuegang]] (an old initially illegal smuggling port that was later legalized in 1567 and is now part of [[Longhai City|Longhai]]),<ref name=":11">{{harvp|Van der Loon|1967}}</ref> but also with some attested features of the dialects of [[Quanzhou dialects|Chuanchiu (Quanzhou)]], such as from [[Anhai]] ({{zh|t=安海|poj=Oaⁿ-hái|labels=no}})<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /> and [[Tong'an, Xiamen|Tong'an]] ({{zh|t=同安|poj=Tâng-oaⁿ|labels=no}}),<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /> and [[Chaoshan Min|Teo-Swa]] as well, hence Klöter (2011) considers it to be a [[Language contact|contact variety]], known as ''Early Manila Hokkien (EMH)''.<ref name="Klöter c2011" /> [[Yuegang]] ({{zh|t=月港|poj=Goe̍h-káng|labels=no}}), part of [[Zhangzhou Prefecture]] under the late [[Ming dynasty|Ming China]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing China]] used to be the Chinese terminus to and from Spanish [[Manila]], under the [[Spanish Empire]], which was part of the main artery that linked the trans-Pacific trade carried by the [[Manila galleon]] over the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] to [[Acapulco]] in [[New Spain]] (modern-day [[Mexico]]) of the [[Hispanic America|Spanish Americas]], that was also linked to the trans-Atlantic trade from the port of [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] to [[Seville]] in [[Spain]], spreading trade goods from [[Asia]] across the [[Americas]] and later across [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and [[Europe]]. Later, the old port of [[Yuegang]] ({{zh|t=月港|poj=Goe̍h-káng|labels=no}}) would be overshadowed and supplanted by the [[Port of Xiamen]] ({{zh|t=廈門港|poj=Ē-mn̂g Káng|labels=no}}) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]] due to conflict between the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]]/[[Southern Ming]] loyalist, [[Koxinga]] ({{zh|t=國姓爺|poj=Kok-sèng-iâ|labels=no}}), and the [[Qing dynasty|Qing forces]]. 

As a result as well of a [[Sangley Rebellion|1603 Sangley Rebellion]] and a [[2nd Sangley Rebellion (1639)|1639 2nd Sangley Rebellion]] which both caused [[Massacre|massacres]] of ethnic [[Sangley]] [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] in [[Manila]] or [[Southern Luzon]] in general, the loss of [[Spanish Formosa]] to the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch]] in 1642, and the victory of [[Koxinga]] ({{zh|t=國姓爺|poj=Kok-sèng-iâ|labels=no}}) in 1662 against the [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] at the [[Siege of Fort Zeelandia]] in [[Dutch Formosa|Taiwan]], which caused the founding of the [[Kingdom of Tungning]], [[Koxinga]] would send an [[ultimatum]] to [[Real Audiencia of Manila|Spanish Manila]] demanding to pay tribute to him or else he would send a fleet to conquer them and expel the [[Spanish Filipinos|Spaniards]] as well. The [[Spanish Filipinos|Spanish]] took the threat very seriously and withdrew their forces from the [[Moluccas]], [[Sulu Archipelago|Sulu]], and [[Mindanao]] to strengthen [[Manila]] in preparation for an attack. There would be several raids across [[Northern Luzon]] by Koxinga's forces. In the same year of 1662, [[Koxinga]] would suddenly die of [[malaria]], only a few months after defeating the [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]], in a fit of madness and delirium after discovering that his son and heir, [[Zheng Jing]], had an affair with his wet nurse and conceived a child with her. A [[Sangley Massacre (1662)|1662 Sangley Massacre]] would ensue due to these mounting events and many [[Sangley]] [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] fled by ship or to the mountains. Likewise during the 1700s, Spanish Dominican friar missionaries in [[Xiamen|Amoy/Xiamen]] would be severely persecuted in the region as well, but nevertheless continued to operate clandestinely.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal |last=Hompot |first=Sebestyén |year=2018 |editor-last=Schottenhammer |editor-first=Angela |title=Xiamen at the Crossroads of Sino-Foreign Linguistic Interaction during the Late Qing and Republican Periods: The Issue of Hokkien Phoneticization |url=https://crossroads-research.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/CR-17-18-2020-06-23.pdf |journal=Crossroads: Studies on the History of Exchange Relations in the East Asian World |publisher=OSTASIEN Verlag |volume=17/18 |pages=167–198 |issn=2190-8796}}</ref>

The [[Sangley]] [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] community in the Philippines would survive through the 1700s but intermix locally to create [[Filipino Mestizos|Chinese Mestizos]] (''Mestizos de Sangley'') and be replenished by migrants from [[Xiamen|Amoy/Xiamen]] and [[Quanzhou|Chinchew/Quanzhou]]. Some of whom even aided the [[British Empire|British]] during the [[British occupation of Manila]] in 1762-1764. The Chinese Mestizo (''Mestizos de Sangley'') descendants throughout the centuries with each succeeding generation would gradually stop speaking Hokkien though in favor of [[Language shift|assimilating]] to the local mainstream languages of their time, especially [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]], such as in the [[Filipino Mestizos|mestizo]] family of [[National Hero of the Philippines|Philippine national hero]], [[José Rizal|Jose Rizal]]. The Hokkien spoken across the Philippines throughout the past centuries introduced certain amounts of [[Hokkien]] [[Loanword|loanwords]] to [[Philippine Spanish]] and the major [[Philippine languages|lowland Austronesian languages of the Philippines]], such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]], [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], [[Central Bikol|Central Bicolano]], [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinense]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Waray language|Waray-waray]], [[Chavacano]], etc. as a result of the generations of [[Interethnic marriage|intermarriage]] and [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. Those who chose to marry [[Endogamy|endogamously]] and retained speaking the language and as a result of gradual replenishment of migrants from [[Xiamen|Amoy/Xiamen]] and [[Quanzhou|Chinchew/Quanzhou]], especially relatives from [[Fujian]], [[Mainland China|China]] of those already in the Philippines, throughout the centuries would later continue the [[Sangley]] [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] community in the Philippines that spoke Hokkien.
[[File:Jose_Tecson's_Tomb.jpg|thumb|扶西德孫墓 (Hokkien [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]]: ''Hû-se Tek-sun Bō͘'', lit. "Jose Tecson's Grave"; 仙礁 ([[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]]: ''Sian-ta'') 高律 ([[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]]: ''Ko-lu̍t''), lit. "Santa Cruz" d. 1728 AD), located in [[San Andres Apostol Church (Candaba)|San Andres Apostol Church]] of [[Candaba]], [[Pampanga]] (as of 2010)]]
Later in the early 1800s, the [[Spanish Empire]] would also have its issues with conflicts and wars that would seriously destabilize it, starting with the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in Europe, and the numerous conflicts and [[Spanish American wars of independence|wars of independence across the Spanish Americas]], which eliminated the [[Hispanic America|Spanish Americas]] as the center of the [[Spanish Empire]].

Around 1815, the [[Manila–Acapulco galleon trade]] would finally cease when the [[Mexican War of Independence]] broke out, which the [[First Mexican Empire]] would gain independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] by 1821. From then on 1821 to 1898, Spanish Philippines would be under [[Direct rule|direct royal governance]] under [[Madrid]] in [[Spain]].

By 1832, [[Rev.]] [[Walter Henry Medhurst]] still noted in his Hokkien dictionary, originally as an account given by [[Conrad Malte-Brun]] (1775-1826) on the province of Hok-këèn ([[Fujian]]), that<ref name=":Medhurst">{{Cite book |last=Medhurst |first=Walter Henry |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhokk00medhrich/page/n17/mode/2up?q=Manilla |title=A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms: Containing About 12,000 Characters. Accompanied By A Short Historical And Statistical Account of Hok-këèn |publisher=The Honorable East India Company's Press, by G.J. Steyn and Brother. |year=1832 |location=[[Macao]] & [[Jakarta|Batavia]] |pages=xiii |language=English, Hokkien |chapter=A Short Historical and Statistical Account of the Province of Hok-këèn. (Compiled from European and Chinese Authors.)}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=[[Zhangzhou Prefecture|Tchang-chew-fou (Chëang-chew-hoó)]] [<nowiki/>[[sic]]] is near the [[Port of Xiamen|port of Emouy (Āy-moôiⁿᵍ)]] [<nowiki/>[[sic]]], a great emporium of trāde, frequented by the [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards]] from [[Manila|Manilla]] [<nowiki/>[[sic]]].|author=[[Conrad Malte-Brun]], as quoted by [[Walter Henry Medhurst]]|source=A Short Historical and Statistical Account of the Province of Hok-këèn. (Compiled from European and Chinese Authors.)|title=A Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms: Containing About 12,000 Characters}}

The Spanish trade with [[Xiamen|Amoy]] to and from [[Manila]] later grew nominal as a result of the above destabilizing conflicts cutting the empire in half. The [[Hoklo people|Hokkien Chinese]] merchants from [[Xiamen|Amoy]] and [[Quanzhou|Chinchew]] to and from Manila would later outcompete the [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards]] by the mid-1800s, as noted by the [[British people|British]], such as [[James Matheson]], co-founder of [[Jardine Matheson]]:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greenberg |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNo8AAAAIAAJ&q=Amoy+Spanish+trade |title=British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800-1842 |publisher=CUP Archive |year=1969 |pages=47–48}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Amoy, a much more substantial port giving access to the tea-growing province of Fukien, was open to Spanish trade only. But the right was merely nominal because Chinese junks could transport goods to and from the Philippines much more cheaply than could the Spaniards. The latter had practically given up the trade; only one Spanish ship put in at Amoy between 1810 and 1830. ...Another witness said the Spaniards had given up the Amoy trade since 1800.|author=[[Michael Greenberg (economist)|Michael Greenberg]]|source=Chapter III: The Canton Commercial System, p.47|title=British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800-1842}}

The [[Suez Canal]] which would later link [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish Philippines]] directly to [[Spain]] in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] without rounding the [[Cape of Good Hope|cape]] would only start construction by 1859 and be completed at 1869.

By 1873, [[Rev.]] [[Carstairs Douglas]] writes in his Hokkien dictionary that<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Douglas |first=Carstairs |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/chineseenglishdict00doug/page/610/mode/1up?view=theater |title=Chinese-English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy |publisher=Presbyterian Church of England |year=1899 |location=London |pages=610 |language=English & Amoy Hokkien |chapter=Extent of the Amoy Vernacular, and its Sub-division into Dialects.}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=[[Singapore]] and the various [[Straits Settlements]] {{bracket|such as [[Penang]] and [[Malacca]]}}, Batavia {{bracket|[[Jakarta]]}} and other parts of the [[Dutch East Indies|Dutch possessions]] {{bracket|[[Indonesia]]}}, are crowded with emigrants, especially from the [[Zhangzhou|Chang-chew]] prefecture; '''[[Manila]] and other parts of the [[Spanish Philippines|Philippines]] have great numbers from [[Quanzhou|Chin-chew]]''', and emigrants are largely scattered in like manner in Siam {{bracket|[[Thailand]]}}, Burmah {{bracket|[[Myanmar]]}}, the Malay Peninsula {{bracket|[[Peninsular Malaysia]]}}, [[French Cochinchina|Cochin China]] {{bracket|[[Southern Vietnam]]}}, Saigon {{bracket|[[Ho Chi Minh City]], [[Vietnam]]}}, &c. In many of these places there is also a great mixture of emigrants from [[Swatow]].|author=[[Carstairs Douglas]]|source=Extent of the Amoy Vernacular, and its Sub-division into Dialects: Colonization And Emigration|title=Chinese–English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language of Amoy}} By 1883, [[Rev.]] John Macgowan also records 3 entries explicitly defining [[Hokkien]] {{zh|t=[[wikt:呂宋|呂宋]]|poj=Lū-sòng|l=[[Luzon]]}} in his Hokkien dictionary:
{{Blockquote|text=Luzon, 呂宋 Lū-sòng,—belongs to Spain, 呂宋是大°呂宋之°屬國 Lū-sòng sī Tōa lū-sòng ê siók kok|author=John Macgowan|source=L<ref name=":Macgowan:L">{{Cite book |last=Macgowan |first=John |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023550878/page/286/mode/2up?q=Luzon |title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect |publisher=A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill |year=1883 |location=[[Amoy]] & London |pages=287 |language=English & Amoy Hokkien |chapter=Luzon}}</ref>|title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect}}
{{Blockquote|text=Manilla [<nowiki/>[[sic]]], 呂宋 Lū-sòng, very many Chinese go to—, 唐°人°去°呂宋盡多° tn̂g lâng khì Lū-sòng tsīn tsōe.|author=John Macgowan|source=M<ref name=":Macgowan:M">{{Cite book |last=Macgowan |first=John |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023550878/page/293/mode/2up?q=Manilla |title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect |publisher=A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill |year=1883 |location=[[Amoy]] & London |pages=293 |language=English & Amoy Hokkien |chapter=Manilla}}</ref>|title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect}}
{{Blockquote|text=Philippines, 呂宋 Lū-sòng.|author=John Macgowan|source=P<ref name=":Macgowan:P">{{Cite book |last=Macgowan |first=John |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023550878/page/378/mode/2up?q=Philippines |title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect |publisher=A. A. Marcal and Trubner & Co. 57 Ludgate Hill |year=1883 |location=[[Amoy]] & London |pages=379 |language=English & Amoy Hokkien |chapter=Philippines}}</ref>|title=English and Chinese Dictionary of the Amoy Dialect}}

The Chinese community of the Philippines during the [[Spanish Philippines|Spanish colonial era]] used to also speak a sort of Spanish pidgin variety known as "''[[wikt:Caló|Caló]] [[wikt:chino#Spanish|Chino]] [[wikt:español#Spanish|Español]]''" or ''"La Lengua del Parian"''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Blumentritt |first1=Ferdinand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xe8tAAAAYAAJ&q=%22parian%22+&pg=PA7 |title=Vocabular einzelner Ausdrücke und Redensarten, welche dem Spanischen der Philippinischen Inseln eigenthümlich sind |last2=Pardo de Tavera |first2=T. H. |publisher=Verlag der Communal-Ober-Realschule |year=1885 |location=Leitmeritz |pages=18 |language=Spanish, German |author-link=Ferdinand Blumentritt |author-link2=Trinidad Pardo de Tavera}}</ref> in [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]] or "''[[wikt:Kastila#Tagalog|Kastilang]]'' [[wikt:tindahan#Tagalog|''tindahan'']]" in [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], especially because the Chinese community before obligates Chinese ''[[Kapitan Cina|cabecillas]]'' (community leaders), such as Capitan [[Carlos Palanca (born 1844)|Carlos Palanca Tan Quien Sien]], to teach rudimentary [[Spanish language|Spanish]] to new Chinese immigrants which was taught in [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese-owned schools]]. They could speak these Spanish pidgin varieties after one month which many, especially old timers later became very fluent, albeit some still with accented Spanish. Spanish was prevalent enough among the educated in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era, that Joseph Earle Stevens, an American that stayed in Manila from 1893-1894 had this to say in his book, ''"Yesterdays in the Philippines"'':<ref>{{cite web |last=Andrade |first=Pío |date=2008 |title=Education and Spanish in the Philippines |url=http://www.galeondemanila.org/index.php/component/content/article/49/111 |work=Asociación Cultural Galeón de Manila}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrade |first=Pío, Jr. |date=2020 |editor-last=Zarzo |editor-first=Esther |title=LA EDUCACIÓN Y EL ESPAÑOL EN FILIPINAS: 1. La leyenda negra sobre el estado de la educación en la Filipinas española |url=https://revista.carayanpress.com/page16/page245/page228/andrade.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224070742/https://revista.carayanpress.com/page16/page245/page228/andrade.html |archive-date=February 24, 2024 |access-date=June 27, 2024 |website=Revista Filipina}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=Spanish, of course, is the court and commercial language and, except among uneducated natives who have a lingo of their own or among the few members of the Anglo-Saxon colony, it has a monopoly everywhere. No one can really get on without it, and '''even the [[Sangley|Chinese]] come in with their peculiar pidgin variety'''|author=Joseph Earle Stevens|source=|title=''Yesterdays in the Philippines''}}

By 1941, Vicente Lim publishes a dictionary in Manila, titled ''"Chinese-English-Tagalog-Spanish Business conversation and social contact with Amoy pronunciation"'' giving equivalent words in the stated 4 languages,''<ref name=":0" />'' where ''"Chinese"'' and ''"Amoy"'' referred to a formalized literary form of the local [[Quanzhou dialects|Chuanchiu]]-based [[Hokkien]] as used by the author and the [[Chinese Filipino]] community in the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippines]] at that time. As per Lim's dictionary, [[American English]] took precedence as consistent with the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial era]], when [[English language|English]] along with [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]] began to be taught as the [[official language]] of the [[Philippine Islands]] under the [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|Insular Government]], which later, [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] was chosen as the basis of [[Filipino language|Filipino]], the [[national language]] of the Philippines under the [[1935 Constitution of the Philippines|1935 constitution]] of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Philippine Commonwealth]]. 

By 1987, under the current [[1987 Constitution|1987 constitution]] of the Philippines, [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Spanish]] began to only be "promoted on a voluntary and optional basis", leading to most schools in the Philippines to no longer teach Spanish as a required [[School class|class subject]], which would most if not completely dissipate from mainstream use in later decades in the Philippines. The Spanish used decades before have been retained as a few Spanish loanwords in Philippine Hokkien, such as those found below.

In the 21st century, the Philippines now only has 2 [[Official language|official languages]], [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and [[Philippine English|English]], with currently 19 recognized [[Regional languages in the Philippines|regional languages]], including [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], etc., which Philippine Hokkien speakers currently frequently [[Code-switching|codeswitch]] with, which the form using [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]) and [[Philippine English|English]] together with Hokkien is known as [[Hokaglish]], akin to [[Taglish]]. 

From the 20th to the 21st century, there have been a few books published about Hokkien from the Philippines based on what is used at least by the author in the Philippines and many of whom have been utilizing the [[Latin script]] often together with [[Chinese characters]] to try and write Hokkien based on the author's level of [[literacy]] on [[written Hokkien]]. Sometimes the [[Chinese characters]] used in these 20th to 21st century books only use Chinese characters more appropriate to [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] [[Standard Chinese]], so it is mostly the [[Romanization|Romanized]] [[Latin script]] section that can be properly identified as Philippine Hokkien, although due to different author's level of literacy on [[written Hokkien]], the orthographies of the romanization used may widely differ per author usually influenced by the author's knowledge of [[English orthography]], [[Filipino orthography]], [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] [[Pinyin]] or [[Wade–Giles|Wade-Giles]], and [[Spanish orthography]] (for older works). These 20th-21st century publications from the Philippines about Hokkien often also call the [[Hokkien]] language with different names, such as ''"Chinese"'',<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":9" /> ''"Amoy"'',<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":10" /> ''"Fookien",''<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /> ''"Fukien"'',<ref name="Chan Yap 1980" /> ''"Fukienese"'',<ref name=":8" /> or even ''"Fujianwa"''<ref name=":9" /> or ''"Foojian"''.<ref name=":9" /> There have been books as well in the Philippines writing in [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ)]] for Hokkien in the Philippines, such as Victoria W. Peralta-Ang Gobonseng's ''"Amoy Vernacular Handbook"'' Vol. 1 Revised Edition (2003).<ref name=":10" />

== Use as a liturgical language ==
Hokkien in the Philippines has been used as a [[liturgical language]] in [[Christianity]] (both [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations), [[Chinese Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Mazu|Matsu worship]] for centuries. For [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Christianity, it was used ever since the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]] ministered to [[Sangley]] [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese]] around the 1590s to 1600s and beyond.<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /><ref name=":11" /> For Buddhism, Taoism, and Matsu worship, it was used ever since the first Hokkien-speaking Sangley Chinese practitioners in the Philippines gathered together for [[liturgy]] or the first Buddhist, Taoist, and Ma-cho chinese temples were erected in the Philippines, such as the [[Seng Guan Temple]], [[Ma-Cho Temple]], etc.<ref name=":14" /> For [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christianity, it was used ever since Protestant [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese Filipinos]] converted to [[List of Christian denominations#Protestant|Protestant denominations]] around the early 20th century when the first Protestant Chinese Filipino churches sprang up, such as [[Saint Stephen's Parish Church (Manila)|St. Stephen's Parish Church]] (for [[Episcopal Church in the Philippines|Episcopalian Anglicanism]]) and the [https://www.oocities.org/heartland/valley/9334/uecpmain.htm United Evangelical Church of the Philippines (UECP)] (for [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] [[Evangelicalism in the Philippines|Evangelicalism]]), etc. 

In the 21st century, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Chinese Filipino]] churches and schools usually conduct [[liturgy]] usually called ''"Amoy Worship Service"'' or ''"Chinese Worship Service"'' where protestant Chinese Filipino [[Pastor|pastors]] or [[The Reverend|reverends]] ([[Hokkien]] {{zh|t=[[wikt:牧師|牧師]]|poj=bo̍k-su}}) usually conduct their [[church service]] message in typically mostly Philippine Hokkien with added formal abstract [[Liturgy|liturgical]] [[Amoy dialect|Amoy Hokkien]] terms or Hokkienized [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] terms read in Philippine Hokkien reading and sometimes additionally [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]] (i.e. some [[Contemporary worship music|praise and worship songs]] in certain churches). These Chinese Filipino protestant churches are usually linked to [https://bsop.edu.ph/ BSOP (Biblical Seminary of the Philippines)] and [[Chinese Congress on World Evangelization|CCOWE (Chinese Congress on World Evangelization)]] and their respective [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]] that each Chinese Filipino church may also usually operate and sometimes also teach Hokkien usually known as ''"Amoy"'' or use it as [[language of instruction]] to teach Mandarin, which is also typically known as just "Chinese" in school classes. These Protestant Chinese Filipino churches that also operate with a Chinese Filipino school usually within the same campus also sometimes minister [[Church service|church or chapel service]] in ''"Amoy"'' (Hokkien) to their students too.<ref name=":5" />

[[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese Buddhist]] temples in the Philippines also primarily conduct their [[sutra]] chanting services and temple sermons in Hokkien via the venerable monks and nuns living in the temples across the Philippines. Many of the Chinese Buddhist monastics only speak Hokkien or [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] (if recently came from China), though some can also speak [[English language|English]], and rarely also [[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]). Some of the Chinese Buddhist temples are associated as well with the [[Tzu Chi|Tzu Chi Foundation]] from Taiwan. Most Chinese Buddhist temples in the Philippines are rooted in the [[Chinese Buddhism|Chinese]] [[Mahāyāna]] tradition with some syncretizing [[Taoism]], while also practicing [[Confucianism|Confucian]] principles. For example, [[Guan Yu|Guandi]] or known in Hokkien as {{zh|t=帝爺公|poj=Tè-iâ-kong|labels=no}} or {{zh|t=關公|poj=Koan-kong|labels=no}} or {{zh|t=關帝爺|poj=Koan-tè-iâ|labels=no}}, the Chinese God of War, is usually a [[door god]] or a statue by the doors and entrances of Chinese Buddhist temples to serve as a symbolic protector. Some Chinese Buddhist temples also run [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]] in the Philippines, such as the Samantabhadra Institute, Philippine Academy of Sakya, and Philippine Buddhacare Academy.<ref name=":14" />

[[Roman Catholic]] Christianity in the Philippines used to also have Hokkien as one of the languages they used to conduct their liturgy in but its current use for ministry is now defunct, especially under the Chinese-Filipino Catholic Apostolate of the [[Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines|Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines]] (CBCP). It has a long history in using Hokkien to minister to [[Sangley]] [[Chinese Filipinos|Chinese]] living in the Philippines and [[Fujian]] as evidenced in the works of the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]], such as the ''[[Doctrina Christiana|Doctrina Christiana en letra y lingua china]]'' (1593), who aimed to use the Sangley Chinese Catholic converts as a catalyst for converting the rest of China.<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /><ref name=":11" />

==Education==
During the late 20th century, despite [[Standard Chinese]] ([[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines|Mandarin]]) taking the place as the usual [[Chinese school|Chinese]] [[Course (education)|class subject]] taught in [[List of Chinese schools in the Philippines|Chinese Filipino schools]] as the topic of study, some schools had Chinese teachers that used [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] [[Hokkien]] as [[medium of instruction]] in order to teach [[Mandarin Chinese]] to native-[[Hokkien]]-speaking [[Chinese Filipino]] students, but decades later around the [[History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|Marcos Era]], regulations became stricter and the [[medium of instruction]] for teaching [[Standard Chinese]] ([[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]) in Chinese classes shifted from [[Amoy dialect|Amoy Hokkien Chinese]] to purely [[Mandarin Chinese]] (or in some schools to [[Philippine English|English]]). Also, due to the increased rural to urban migration of Chinese Filipinos, Chinese Filipino schools in urban areas increased but those in the provinces gradually declined, some closing down or some turning into ordinary Philippine schools, where some tried to preserve their "Chinese" characteristic by instead teaching [[Hokkien]] as their Chinese [[Course (education)|class subject]], deeming it as more practical in the Philippine-Chinese setting.<ref name="Palanca3">{{Cite journal |last=Palanca |first=Ellen H. |year=2002 |title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia* |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf |journal=Asian Studies |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=55 |via=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia}}</ref>

{{As of|2019}}, the [[Ateneo de Manila University]], under their Chinese Studies Programme, offers Hokkien 1 (Chn 8) and Hokkien 2 (Chn 9) as electives.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 13, 2013 |title=Minor in Chinese Studies |url=https://www.ateneo.edu/ls/soss/chinese-studies/minor-chinese-studies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226193143/https://www.ateneo.edu/ls/soss/chinese-studies/minor-chinese-studies |archive-date=December 26, 2019 |access-date=November 4, 2019 |website=Ateneo de Manila University |language=en}}</ref> [[Chiang Kai Shek College]] offers Hokkien classes in their CKS Language Center.<ref name="CKS Language Center">{{Cite web |title=CKS Language Center |url=https://college.cksc.edu.ph/cks-language-center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218011449/https://college.cksc.edu.ph/cks-language-center |archive-date=December 18, 2019 |access-date=November 4, 2019 |website=Chiang Kai Shek College |language=en}}</ref>

== Linguistic features ==
[[File:Grave Tablet from Manila Chinese Cemetery.jpg|thumb|The contractions, {{wt|zh|卅}} (sam/sap) and {{wt|zh|廾}} (lia̍p), used on a grave tablet in the [[Manila Chinese Cemetery]].|alt=]]
21st century Philippine Hokkien ({{zh|t=[[wikt:咱人話|咱人話]]|poj=Lán-nâng-ōe|labels=no}}) is largely derived from the Coastal [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou]] ({{zh|t=泉州|poj=Choân-chiu|labels=no}}) [[Hokkien]] dialects of [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang]] ({{zh|t=晉江|poj=Chìn-kang|labels=no}}), Coastal [[Nan'an, Fujian|Nan'an]] ({{zh|t=海南安 / 下南安|poj=Hái Lâm-oaⁿ / Ě Lâm-oaⁿ|labels=no}}), [[Shishi, Fujian|Shishi]] ({{zh|t=石狮|poj=Chio̍h-sai|labels=no}}), [[Quanzhou]] City Proper ({{zh|t=泉州市|poj=Choân-chiu|labels=no}}), [[Hui'an dialect|Hui’an]] ({{zh|t=惠安|poj=Hūi-oaⁿ|labels=no}}), but has possibly also absorbed influences from the adjacent [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]] dialects of [[Xiamen]] ({{zh|t=廈門|poj=Ē-mn̂g|labels=no}}), Coastal [[Tong'an District|Tong’an]] ({{zh|t=同安|poj=Tâng-oaⁿ|labels=no}}), [[Kinmen]] ({{zh|t=金門|poj=Kim-mn̂g|labels=no}}), Highland [[Nan'an, Fujian|Nan'an]] ({{zh|t=頂南安 / 山南安|poj=Téng Lâm-oaⁿ / Soaⁿ Lâm-oaⁿ|labels=no}}), Inland [[Yongchun County|Yongchun]] ({{zh|t=永春|poj=Éng-chhun|labels=no}}), and Inland [[Anxi County|Anxi]] ({{zh|t=安溪|poj=An-khoe|labels=no}}) dialects of Xiamen and Highland [[Quanzhou]] respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Huiming 蔡惠名 |last2=Wang |first2=Guilan 王桂蘭 |date=2011 |title=Fēilǜbīn Fújiànhuà chūbù diàochá chéngguǒ |script-title=zh:菲律賓福建話初步調查成果 |trans-title=Preliminary Research Results on Philippine Hokkien |journal=Hǎiwēng Táiyǔ wénxué jiàoxué jìkān |language=zh |issue=11 |page=52 |doi=10.6489/HWTYWHCHCK.201103.0046 |script-journal=zh:海翁台語文學教學季刊}}</ref><ref name="Gonzales 2018">{{Cite thesis |last=Gonzales |first=Wilkinson Daniel Ong Wong |title=Philippine Hybrid Hokkien as a Postcolonial Mixed Language: Evidence from Nominal Derivational Affixation Mixing |date=2018 |degree=M.A. |publisher=National University of Singapore |url=https://scholarbank.nus.edu.sg/handle/10635/151219 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chiu |first=Richard T. |url=https://www.anvilpublishing.com/shop/trade-books/history-culture/chinese-and-chinese-mestizos-of-manila/ |title=Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila |publisher=Koninklijke Brill NV |year=2010 |isbn=978-971-27-2716-0 |location=Leiden, The Netherlands |pages=29–30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=江柏煒 |date=December 2014 |title=海外金門人僑社調查實錄－菲律賓篇：成果報告 |trans-title=Survey Records of Overseas Kinmen Communities - Philippines: Results Report |url=https://ws.moi.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvT2xkRmlsZV9LTU5QL3Jlc291cmNlL2NvbnNlcnZpY2F0aW9uLzIxLnBkZg%3D%3D&n=MjEucGRm&icon=..pdf&fbclid=IwAR3XWItCdNEtJBAnBpyw6gqOeaeuICcAfRfuvb_045rIltQK7CZpm5sBZvo |journal=海外金門人僑社調查實錄 |publisher=金門國家公園管理 [Kinmen National Park Management Office]}}</ref>

Meanwhile, the older late 16th to 17th century Early Manila Hokkien once spoken around the [[Manila Bay]] area was largely derived from Coastal [[Zhangzhou]] ({{zh|t=漳州|poj=Chiang-chiu|labels=no}}) Hokkien dialects of [[Haicheng, Fujian|Haicheng]] ({{zh|t=海澄|poj=Hái-têng|labels=no}})<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /> and [[Longhai City|Longxi]] ({{zh|t=龍溪|poj=Liông-khe|labels=no}}), with also some features from the Coastal [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou]] ({{zh|t=泉州|poj=Choân-chiu|labels=no}}) [[Hokkien]] dialects of [[Anhai]] ({{zh|t=安海|poj=Oaⁿ-hái|labels=no}})<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /> and [[Tong'an, Xiamen|Tong'an]] ({{zh|t=同安|poj=Tâng-oaⁿ|labels=no}}).<ref name="Van der Loon 1966" /> Haicheng and Longxi have since been merged by 1960 within modern-day [[Longhai District|Longhai]] ({{zh|t=龍海|poj=Liông-hái|labels=no}}) of Coastal [[Zhangzhou]] ({{zh|t=漳州|poj=Chiang-chiu|labels=no}}) on the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] ({{zh|t=九龍江|poj=Kiú-liông-kang|labels=no}}) from where the old smuggling port of [[Yuegang]] ({{zh|t=月港|poj=Goe̍h-káng|labels=no}}) used to operate from, before being overshadowed by the [[Port of Xiamen]] ({{zh|t=廈門港|poj=Ē-mn̂g Káng|labels=no}}) closer to the sea by around the mid-1600s at the [[Transition from Ming to Qing|Ming-Qing transition]] due to conflict between the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] loyalist, [[Koxinga]] ({{zh|t=國姓爺|poj=Kok-sèng-iâ|labels=no}}), and the [[Qing dynasty|Qing forces]].

Although Philippine Hokkien is generally mutually comprehensible especially with other [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou]] [[Hokkien]] variants, including [[Singaporean Hokkien]] and [[Quanzhou dialects|Quanzhou-based]] [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] variants, the local vocabulary, [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]], and [[Filipino language|Filipino]] or [[Spanish language in the Philippines|Philippine Spanish]] and [[Philippine English|English]] loanwords as well as the extensive use of [[Contraction (grammar)|contractions]] and [[colloquialism]]s (even those which are now unused or considered [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#archaic|archaic]] or [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary#dated|dated]] in China) can result in confusion among Hokkien speakers from outside of the Philippines.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

=== Contractions ===
Some terms have contracted into one syllable. Examples include:<ref name=":0">{{cite book|first=Vicente|last=Lim|year=1941|title=Chinese-English-Tagalog-Spanish Business conversation and social contact with Amoy pronunciation|publisher=Poc Bon Book Co.|location=Manila|url=https://www.lannangarchives.org/items/f3d86461-5de0-4971-9871-e5c416e02afa}}</ref>

*dī-tsa̍p/lī-tsa̍p ({{wt|zh|二十}}) > dia̍p/lia̍p ({{wt|zh|廿}} / {{wt|zh|廾}}): twenty; 20 (same format for 20–29, i.e. 二十一[21] is "dia̍p-it" 廿一)
*saⁿ-tsa̍p ({{wt|zh|三十}}) > sap{{Efn|Pls Do Not Confuse with sam ({{wt|zh|三}}), the [[Literary and colloquial readings|literary reading]] of saⁿ ({{wt|zh|三}}), which is also popular for counting numbers among speakers, i.e. 三十五[35] is "sam-gǒ͘" 三五}} ({{wt|zh|卅}}): thirty; 30 (same format for 30–39, i.e. 三十二[32] is "sa̍p-dī" 卅二)
*sì-tsa̍p ({{wt|zh|四十}}) > siap ({{wt|zh|卌}}): forty; 40 (same format for 40–49, i.e. 四十三[43] is "siap-saⁿ" 卌三)
*siáⁿ-lâng-á ([[wikt:啥人|啥人]][[wikt:仔|仔]]) > siâng-á ([[wikt:誰仔|誰仔]]): who
*tsàiⁿ-iūⁿ-á ([[wikt:怎樣|怎樣]][[wikt:仔|仔]]) > tsiùⁿ-á ([[wikt:障仔|障仔]]): how
*tán—tsi̍t-ě ([[wikt:等一下|等一下]]) > tán—tsě ([[wikt:等|等]][[wikt:際|際]]): to wait

===Vocabulary===
Philippine Hokkien, like other Southeast Asian variants of Hokkien (e.g. [[Singaporean Hokkien]], [[Penang Hokkien]], [[Southern Malaysian Hokkien|Johor Hokkien]] and [[Medan Hokkien]]), has borrowed words from other languages spoken locally, specifically [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[English language|English]]. Examples include:<ref name="PhilH Study" /><ref name=":0" />
* ''lé-chu-chhài'' {{IPA|/le˩ tsu˧ tsʰai˥˩/}}: "lettuce", from Spanish ''[[wikt:lechuga|lechuga]]'' + Hokkien {{wt|zh-Hant|菜}} (chhài, "vegetable")
* ''ka kaó'': "cocoa", either from Spanish ''{{wt|es|cacao}}'' or Tagalog ''{{wt|tl|kakaw}}''
* ''ka-pé'' (咖啡): "coffee", from Tagalog ''{{wt|tl|kape}}'', which was from Spanish ''{{wt|es|café}}''
* ''pà-chî'' (霸薯): "potato", either from Spanish ''{{wt|es|patata}}'' or Tagalog ''{{wt|tl|patatas}}'' + Hokkien {{wt|zh-Hant|薯}} (chî, "potato")
* ''kam-á-tit'' (柑仔得): "tomato", either from Tagalog ''{{wt|tl|kamatis}}'' or directly from Spanish ''{{wt|es|tomate}}''
* ''sap-bûn'' (雪文): "soap", either from [[Early Modern Spanish]] ''{{wt|es|jabón}}''{{Efn|pronounced before in [[Early Modern Spanish]] as [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /ʃaˈbon/ during the early centuries of Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines}} or Tagalog ''{{wt|tl|sabon}}''
* ''pá-lâ'' (把拉): "to pay", from Spanish ''[[wikt:paga|paga]],'' [[inflection]] of ''[[wikt:pagar|pagar]]''
* ''lō͘-sin'' (落申): "dozen", from English ''{{wt|en|dozen}}''
* ''chi̍p-nî-chhia'' (集尼車), from [[Philippine English]] ''{{wt|en|jeepney}}'' + Hokkien {{wt|zh-Hant|車}} (chhia, "vehicle")
* ''go-ma-ôe'': "rubber shoes ([[sneakers]])", from Tagalog ''[[wikt:goma#Tagalog|goma]]'' or Spanish ''[[wikt:goma#Spanish|goma]]'' + Hokkien [[wikt:鞋|鞋]] (ôe, "shoe")
* ''go-ma-thn̂g'': "bubblegum", from Tagalog ''[[wikt:goma#Tagalog|goma]]'' or Spanish ''[[wikt:goma#Spanish|goma]]'' + Hokkien [[wikt:糖|糖]] (thn̂g, "candy")
Philippine Hokkien has also [[calque]]d a few expressions from [[Philippine English]] since the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial era]], such as

* ''Hó tsá-khí !'' (好早起！): ''"Good Morning!"''
* ''Hó àm-po͘ !'' (好暗晡！) / ''Hó ě-po͘ !'' (好下晡！): ''"Good Afternoon!"''
* ''Hó àm-mî !'' (好暗暝！): ''"Good Evening!"''

Philippine Hokkien also has some vocabulary that is unique to it compared to other varieties of Hokkien:<ref name="PhilH Study" /><ref name=":0" />
* {{lang|zh-Hant|車頭}} {{IPA|/tsʰia˧ tʰau˩˧/}}: "chauffeur"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|山猴}} {{IPA|/suã˧ kau˩˧/}}: "country bumpkin"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|新山}} {{IPA|/ɕin˧ suã˧/}}, {{lang|zh-Hant|義山}} {{IPA|/ɡi˩ san˧/}}: "cemetery" (used in the sign for [[Manila Chinese Cemetery]])
* {{lang|zh-Hant|霸薯}} {{IPA|/pa˥˥˦ tsi˨˦/}}: "potato"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|麵頭}} {{IPA|/bin˩ tʰau˨˦/}}: "bread"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|病厝}} {{IPA|/pĩ˩ tsʰu˦˩/}}: "hospital"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|毋好}} {{IPA|/m̩˨ ho˥˥˦/}}: "to be sick"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|燒燒}} {{IPA|/ɕio˧ ɕio˧/}}: "to have a fever"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|桶}} {{IPA|/tʰaŋ˥˥˦/}}, short for {{lang|zh-Hant|面桶}} {{IPA|/bin˧ tʰaŋ˥˥˦/}}: "million". in other Hokkien varieties, {{lang|zh-Hant|百萬}} {{IPA|/paʔ˥ ban˥˩/}} is used instead
* instead of just {{lang|zh-Hant|翕像}} {{IPA|/hip̚˨˦ ɕiɔŋ˨/}}, there is also {{lang|zh-Hant|欱像}} {{IPA|/hap̚˨˦ ɕiɔŋ˧/}}: "to photograph"
* instead of just {{lang|zh-Hant|有時陣}} {{IPA|/u˨ ɕi˨ t͡sun˥˩/}}. there is also {{lang|zh-Hant|有陣時}} {{IPA|/u˨ t͡sun˨ ɕi˨˦/}} and, {{lang|zh-Hant|有陣仔}} {{IPA|/u˨ t͡sun˨ a˥˥˦/}}: "sometimes"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|熱人}} {{IPA|/luaʔ˨ laŋ˨˦/}}: "hot" ''(of the weather).'' in other Hokkien varieties, it means "summer"
* {{lang|zh-Hant|寒人}} {{IPA|/kuã˨ laŋ˨˦/}}: "cold" ''(of the weather).'' in other Hokkien varieties, it means "winter"

Philippine Hokkien usually follows the 3 decimal place [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] used worldwide, but still retains the concept of {{zhi|c=萬|poj=bān|l=ten thousand}} from the [[Chinese numerals|Chinese numeral system]], so 'ten thousand' would be {{zhi|c=一萬|poj=chi̍t-bān}}, but examples of the 3 decimal place logic have produced words like:
* 'eleven thousand' – {{zhi|c=十一千|poj=cha̍p-it-chheng}}, and same idea for succeeding numbers
*:Other Hokkien variants: {{zhi|c=一萬一千|poj=chi̍t-bān chi̍t-chheng}}
* 'one hundred thousand' – {{zhi|c=一百千|poj=chi̍t-pah-chheng}}, and same idea for succeeding numbers
*:Other Hokkien variants: {{zhi|c=十萬|poj=cha̍p-bān}}
* 'one million' – {{zhi|c=一桶|poj=chi̍t-tháng}} or {{zhi|c=一面桶|poj=chi̍t-bīn-tháng}}, and same idea for succeeding numbers
*:Other Hokkien variants: {{zhi|c=一百萬|poj=chi̍t-pah-bān}}
* 'one hundred million' – {{zhi|c=一百桶|poj=chi̍t-pah-tháng}}, and same idea for succeeding numbers
*:Other Hokkien variants: {{zhi|c=一億|poj=chi̍t-iak}}

==Hokaglish==
{{Main|Hokaglish}}
Hokaglish is [[code-switching]] involving Philippine Hokkien, [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Philippine English|English]]. Hokaglish shows similarities to [[Taglish]] (mixed [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Philippine English|English]]), the everyday [[mesolect]] register of spoken [[Filipino language]] within [[Metro Manila]] and its environs.<ref name="Hokaglish" />

Both ways of speaking are very common among Chinese Filipinos, who tend to code-switch these languages in everyday conversation, where it can be observed that older generations typically use the Hokkien Chinese sentence structure base while injecting English and Tagalog words while the younger ones use the Filipino/Tagalog sentence structure as the base while injecting the few Hokkien terms they know in the sentence. The latter therefore, in a similar sense with Taglish using [[Tagalog grammar]] and [[syntax]], tends to [[Code-mixing|code-mix]] via [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugating]] the Hokkien terms the way they do for Filipino/Tagalog words.<ref name="Palanca2">{{Cite journal|last=Palanca|first=Ellen H.|year=2002|title=A Comparative Study of Chinese Education in the Philippines and Malaysia*|url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-38-2-2002/palanca.pdf|journal=Asian Studies|volume=38|issue=2|pages=32|via=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia}}</ref>

In other [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]]/[[Regions of the Philippines|regions]] of the Philippines, a similar code-switching medium is also done with Philippine Hokkien and English, but instead of or along with [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], other [[List of regional languages of the Philippines|regional languages]] are used as well, such as [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]] (akin to [[Bislish]]), [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon/Ilonggo]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Central Bikol|Bikolano]], [[Waray language|Waray]], [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]], [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinense]], etc., so in [[Metro Cebu]], [[Chinese Filipino]] families speak a [[Code-switching|code-swtiching]] mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]], and [[Philippine English]], while in [[Metro Davao]], [[Butuan]], and [[Cagayan de Oro|Cagayan de Oro (CDO)]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Cebuano language|Cebuano Bisaya]], [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Philippine English]] is used, while in [[Iloilo City|Iloilo]] and [[Bacolod]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon (Ilonggo)]], and [[Philippine English]] is used, while in [[Vigan]] and [[Baguio]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], and [[Philippine English]] is used, while in [[Tacloban]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Waray language|Waray]], Philippine English is used, while in [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Central Bikol]]ano, and [[Philippine English]] is used, while in [[Zamboanga City]], a mix of Philippine Hokkien, [[Chavacano]], [[Philippine English]], and sometimes [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] and/or [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] are used.

==See also==
* [[Hokkien architecture]]
* [[Hokkien culture]]
* [[Hokkien media]]
* [[Hoklo people]]
* [[Holopedia]]
* [[Mandarin Chinese in the Philippines]]
* [[Medan Hokkien]]
* [[Penang Hokkien]]
* [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]
* [[Singapore Hokkien]]
* [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien|Southern Malaysia Hokkien]]
* [[Speak Hokkien Campaign]]
* [[Taiwanese Hokkien]]
* [[Taiwanese Romanization System]]
* [[Written Hokkien]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last=Klöter |first=Henning |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T8NdEa7NckUC |title=The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18493-0 |language=en}} - An analysis and facsimile of the ''Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu'' (1620), the oldest extant grammar of Hokkien.
* {{Cite journal |last=Van der Loon |first=Piet |year=1966 |title=The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 1 |url=http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1716usrgSxY.pdf |journal=Asia Major |series=New Series |volume=12 |pages=1–43 |language=en}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Van der Loon |first=Piet |date=1967 |title=The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 2 |url=http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1745sWSSKnQ.pdf |journal=Asia Major |series=New Series |volume=13 |pages=95–186 |language=en}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |authorlink=Juan Cobo |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |authorlink2=Miguel de Benavides |url=https://ustdigitallibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/section7/id/39614 |title=Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china |date=1593 |location=Manila |language=nan-hbl,es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719042436/https://ustdigitallibrary.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/section7/id/39614 |archive-date=July 19, 2024 |via=[[University of Santo Tomas|UST]] Digital Library of the [[Miguel de Benavides Library|Miguel de Benavides Library and Archives]]}} – Hokkien counterpart of the Tagalog ''[[Doctrina Christiana]]''.
* {{Cite book |last1=Cobo |first1=Juan |url=http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/tgb/thak.asp?id=178 |title=Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china |last2=Benavides |first2=Miguel de |date=1593 |location=Manila |language=nan-hbl,es |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321151436/http://ip194097.ntcu.edu.tw/memory/tgb/thak.asp?id=178 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |via=[[National Taichung University of Education]] |authorlink=Juan Cobo |authorlink2=Miguel de Benavides}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cobo |first=Juan |authorlink=Juan Cobo |url=http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702 |title=''Apología de la verdadera religión'' 天主教真傳實錄 (Veritable Record of the Catholic Tradition) |date=1593 |location=Manila |language=lzh,es |via=Biblioteca Digital Hispánica of Catálogo BNE ([[Biblioteca Nacional de España]])}}
* {{Cite book |url=http://bipadi.ub.edu/cdm/ref/collection/manuscrits/id/29744 |title=Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu |date=1620 |location=Manila |language=nan-hbl,es |via=Biblioteca Patrimonial Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona}} – A manual for learning Hokkien written by a Spanish missionary in the Philippines.

== External links ==
* {{Cite web |title=Amoy Resources |url=https://bsop.edu.ph/resources/amoy-resources/?fbclid=IwAR0GSliLi760OPNo-iW2WmkFGHGzMpmopxOH2_KqfiuWNg9KHAUrGTgoh5c |access-date=April 13, 2024 |website=BSOP Biblical Seminary of the Philippines}}
{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Languages of the Philippines}}
{{Min Chinese|state=expanded}}
{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Chinese-Filipino culture]]
[[Category:Languages of the Philippines|*]]
[[Category:Hokkien-language dialects]]

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