"කැනඩාවේ ඉතිහාසය" හි සංශෝධන අතර වෙනස්කම්

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.^[1] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.^[2] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.^[3] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.^[4] Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,^[5] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.^[5]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000^[7] and two million,^[8] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.^[9] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent.^[10] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity,^[11] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.^[12]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.^[13] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.^[14] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.^[15] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.^[16] Settler colonialism reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.^[17] A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008.^[18] This included acknowledgment of cultural genocide,^[19] settlement agreements,^[18] and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.^[20]

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.^[22] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.^[23] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England.^[24] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-මීටර (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.^[25] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.^[26] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.^[27]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.^[28] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.^[23] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).^[29] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.^[30] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.^[31]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.^[32] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.^[33] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.^[34]

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.^[36] St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.^[37] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.^[38] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.^[39] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.^[40] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.^[36]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.^[41] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.^[42] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.^[43]

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.^[45] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.^[46] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.^[47] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.^[7]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.^[48] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.^[36] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.^[49] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).^[50] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.^[51]

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.^[53] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.^[54] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,^[55] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.^[56] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.^[56] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.^[57]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.^[58] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",^[59] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.^[60] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.^[61] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.^[62] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.^[63] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.^[64]

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War.^[65] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.^[66] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.^[67] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,^[66] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada's independence.^[68]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.^[69] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.^[70] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.^[66]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War.^[71] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.^[66] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.^[72]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.^[66] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.^[73]

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.^[74] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.^[75]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965,^[76] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,^[77] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.^[78] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.^[79]

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.^[81] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.^[82] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.^[83]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.^[84] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970,^[85] and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.^[86] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.^[87] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.^[88] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.^[86]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;^[89] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;^[90] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,^[91] the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups.^[92] Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars,^[93] and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military".^[94] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.^[95]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War^[96] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.^[97] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.^[98] In 2021, the possible graves of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.^[99] Administered by various Christian churches and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.^[100]

1. ^
   • Dillehay, Thomas D. (2008). The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory. Basic Books. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7867-2543-4.
   • Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1.
2. ^ Rawat, Rajiv (2012). Circumpolar Health Atlas. University of Toronto Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-4426-4456-4.
3. ^
   • Hayes, Derek (2008). Canada: An Illustrated History. Douglas & Mcintyre. pp. 7, 13. ISBN 978-1-55365-259-5.
   • Macklem, Patrick (2001). Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-8020-4195-1.
4. ^ Sonneborn, Liz (January 2007). Chronology of American Indian History. Infobase Publishing. pp. 2–12. ISBN 978-0-8160-6770-1.
5. ^ ^{a b} Graber, Christoph Beat; Kuprecht, Karolina; Lai, Jessica C. (2012). International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 366. ISBN 978-0-85793-831-2.
6. ^ "Census Program Data Viewer dashboard". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. January 25, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය February 3, 2024.
7. ^ ^{a b} Wilson, Donna M; Northcott, Herbert C (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-55111-873-4.
8. ^ Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Haines, Michael R; Steckel, Richard Hall (eds.). A population history of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380. ISBN 978-0-521-49666-7.
9. ^ O'Donnell, C. Vivian (2008). "Native Populations of Canada". In Bailey, Garrick Alan (ed.). Indians in Contemporary Society. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 2. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-16-080388-8.
10. ^ Marshall, Ingeborg (1998). A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 442. ISBN 978-0-7735-1774-5.
11. ^
    • Collen, Evelyn Jane; Johar, Angad Singh; Teixeira, João C.; Llamas, Bastien (2022-08-05). "The immunogenetic impact of European colonization in the Americas". Frontiers in Genetics. 13. Frontiers Media SA: 1–8. doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.918227. ISSN 1664-8021. PMC 9388791. PMID 35991555.
    • True Peters, Stephanie (2005). Smallpox in the New World. Marshall Cavendish. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-7614-1637-1.
12. ^
    • Laidlaw, Z.; Lester, Alan (2015). Indigenous Communities and Settler Colonialism: Land Holding, Loss and Survival in an Interconnected World. Springer. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-137-45236-8.
    • Ray, Arthur J. (2005). I Have Lived Here Since The World Began. Key Porter Books. p. 244. ISBN 978-1-55263-633-6.
13. ^ Preston, David L. (2009). The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-0-8032-2549-7.
14. ^ Miller, J.R. (2009). Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-1-4426-9227-5.
15. ^
    • Williams, L. (2021). Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis. Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy. Taylor & Francis. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-000-47233-2.
    • Turner, N.J. (2020). Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond. McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-2280-0317-5.
16. ^ Asch, Michael (1997). Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference. UBC Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7748-0581-0.
17. ^
    • Commission de vérité et réconciliation du Canada (January 1, 2016). Canada's Residential Schools: The History, Part 1, Origins to 1939: The Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Volume I. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-0-7735-9818-8.
    • Lux, M.K. (2016). Separate Beds: A History of Indian Hospitals in Canada, 1920s-1980s. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. University of Toronto Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4426-1386-7.
    • Kirmayer, Laurence J.; Guthrie, Gail Valaskakis (2009). Healing Traditions: The Mental Health of Aboriginal Peoples in Canada. UBC Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7748-5863-2.
18. ^ ^{a b} "Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. 2015. p. 5. June 15, 2015 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
19. ^ "Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada" (PDF). National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. May 31, 2015. July 6, 2016 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත (PDF). සම්ප්‍රවේශය January 6, 2019.
20. ^ "Principles respecting the Government of Canada's relationship with Indigenous peoples". Ministère de la Justice. July 14, 2017. June 10, 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
21. ^ Chapman, Frederick T. European Claims in North America in 1750. JSTOR community.15128627. සම්ප්‍රවේශය July 23, 2023.
22. ^
    • Wallace, Birgitta (October 12, 2018). "Leif Eriksson". The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/leif-ericsson. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය June 4, 2020. 
    • Johansen, Bruce E.; Pritzker, Barry M. (2007). Encyclopedia of American Indian History. ABC-CLIO. pp. 727–728. ISBN 978-1-85109-818-7.
23. ^ ^{a b} Cordell, Linda S.; Lightfoot, Kent; McManamon, Francis; Milner, George (2009). "L'Anse aux Meadows National Historic Site". Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 27, 82.
    ISBN 978-0-313-02189-3
    . https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82. 
24. ^ Blake, Raymond B.; Keshen, Jeffrey; Knowles, Norman J.; Messamore, Barbara J. (2017). Conflict and Compromise: Pre-Confederation Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-4426-3553-1.
25. ^ Cartier, Jacques; Biggar, Henry Percival; Cook, Ramsay (1993). The Voyages of Jacques Cartier. University of Toronto Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-8020-6000-6.
26. ^ Kerr, Donald Peter (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada: From the beginning to 1800. University of Toronto Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8020-2495-4.
27. ^
    • Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
    • Wynn, Graeme (2007). Canada and Arctic North America: An Environmental History. ABC-CLIO. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-85109-437-0.
28. ^ Rose, George A (October 1, 2007). Cod: The Ecological History of the North Atlantic Fisheries. Breakwater Books. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-55081-225-1.
29. ^ Kelley, Ninette; Trebilcock, Michael J. (September 30, 2010). The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy. University of Toronto Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8020-9536-7.
30. ^ LaMar, Howard Roberts (1977). The Reader's Encyclopedia of the American West. University of Michigan Press. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-690-00008-5.
31. ^ Tucker, Spencer C; Arnold, James; Wiener, Roberta (September 30, 2011). The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 394. ISBN 978-1-85109-697-8.
32. ^
    • Buckner, Phillip Alfred; Reid, John G. (1994). The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. University of Toronto Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-8020-6977-1.
    • Hornsby, Stephen J (2005). British Atlantic, American frontier: spaces of power in early modern British America. University Press of New England. pp. 14, 18–19, 22–23. ISBN 978-1-58465-427-8.
33. ^ Nolan, Cathal J (2008). Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 1650–1715: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9.
34. ^ Allaire, Gratien (May 2007). "From 'Nouvelle-France' to 'Francophonie canadienne': a historical survey". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (185): 25–52. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.024. ISSN 0165-2516.
35. ^ "The Death of General Wolfe". National Gallery of Canada. July 26, 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය July 23, 2023.
36. ^ ^{a b c} උපුටාදැක්වීම් දෝෂය: අනීතික <ref> ටැගය; buckner නමැති ආශ්‍රේයන් සඳහා කිසිදු පෙළක් සපයා නොතිබුණි
37. ^ Hicks, Bruce M (March 2010). "Use of Non-Traditional Evidence: A Case Study Using Heraldry to Examine Competing Theories for Canada's Confederation". British Journal of Canadian Studies. 23 (1): 87–117. doi:10.3828/bjcs.2010.5.
38. ^ Hopkins, John Castell (1898). Canada: an Encyclopaedia of the Country: The Canadian Dominion Considered in Its Historic Relations, Its Natural Resources, its Material Progress and its National Development, by a Corps of Eminent Writers and Specialists. Linscott Publishing Company. p. 125.
39. ^ Nellis, Eric (2010). An Empire of Regions: A Brief History of Colonial British America. University of Toronto Press. p. 331. ISBN 978-1-4426-0403-2.
40. ^ Stuart, Peter; Savage, Allan M. (2011). The Catholic Faith and the Social Construction of Religion: With Particular Attention to the Québec Experience. WestBow Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-1-4497-2084-1.
41. ^ Leahy, Todd; Wilson, Raymond (September 30, 2009). Native American Movements. Scarecrow Press. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-8108-6892-2.
42. ^ Newman, Peter C (2016). Hostages to Fortune: The United Empire Loyalists and the Making of Canada. Touchstone. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-4516-8615-9.
43. ^ McNairn, Jeffrey L (2000). The capacity to judge. University of Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8020-4360-3.
44. ^ "Meeting Between Laura Secord and Lieut. Fitzgibbon, June 1813". Collection Search. July 13, 2023. October 9, 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
45. ^ Harrison, Trevor; Friesen, John W. (2010). Canadian Society in the Twenty-first Century: An Historical Sociological Approach. Canadian Scholars' Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 978-1-55130-371-0.
46. ^ Harris, Richard Colebrook; et al. (1987). Historical Atlas of Canada: The land transformed, 1800–1891. University of Toronto Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8020-3447-2.
47. ^ Gallagher, John A. (1936). "The Irish Emigration of 1847 and Its Canadian Consequences". CCHA Report: 43–57. July 7, 2014 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
48. ^ Read, Colin (1985). Rebellion of 1837 in Upper Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-0-7735-8406-8.
49. ^ Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review. 7 (1): 121–174. doi:10.2307/743779. JSTOR 743779.
50. ^ Evenden, Leonard J; Turbeville, Daniel E (1992). "The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier". In Janelle, Donald G (ed.). Geographical Snapshots of North America. Guilford Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-89862-030-6.
51. ^ Farr, DML; Block, Niko (August 9, 2016). "The Alaska Boundary Dispute". The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/alaska-boundary-dispute. 
52. ^ "Territorial Evolution". Natural Resources Canada. September 12, 2016. September 2, 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
53. ^
    • Dijkink, Gertjan; Knippenberg, Hans (2001). The Territorial Factor: Political Geography in a Globalising World. Amsterdam University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-5629-188-4.
    • Bothwell, Robert (1996). History of Canada Since 1867. Michigan State University Press. pp. 31, 207–310. ISBN 978-0-87013-399-2.
54. ^ Bumsted, JM (1996). The Red River Rebellion. Watson & Dwyer. ISBN 978-0-920486-23-8.
55. ^ "Railway History in Canada". The Canadian Encyclopedia. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/railway-history. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය March 15, 2021. 
56. ^ ^{a b} "Building a nation". Canadian Atlas. Canadian Geographic. March 3, 2006 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය May 23, 2011.
57. ^ Denison, Merrill (1955). The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story. McClelland & Stewart Limited. p. 8.
58. ^
    • "Sir John A. Macdonald". Library and Archives Canada. 2008. June 14, 2011 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය May 23, 2011.
    • Cook, Terry (2000). "The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior". The Archivist. Library and Archives Canada. June 14, 2011 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය May 23, 2011.
59. ^ Hele, Karl S. (2013). The Nature of Empires and the Empires of Nature: Indigenous Peoples and the Great Lakes Environment. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. p. 248. ISBN 978-1-55458-422-2.
60. ^ Gagnon, Erica. "Settling the West: Immigration to the Prairies from 1867 to 1914". Canadian Museum of Immigration. November 28, 2020 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය December 18, 2020.
61. ^ Armitage, Derek; Plummer, Ryan (2010). Adaptive Capacity and Environmental Governance. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 183–184. ISBN 978-3-642-12194-4.
62. ^ Daschuk, James William (2013). Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. University of Regina Press. pp. 99–104. ISBN 978-0-88977-296-0.
63. ^ Hall, David John (2015). From Treaties to Reserves: The Federal Government and Native Peoples in Territorial Alberta, 1870–1905. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 258–259. ISBN 978-0-7735-4595-3.
64. ^ Jackson, Robert J.; Jackson, Doreen; Koop, Royce (2020). Canadian Government and Politics (7th ed.). Broadview Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-4604-0696-0.
65. ^ Tennyson, Brian Douglas (2014). Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation. Scarecrow Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8108-8860-9.
66. ^ ^{a b c d e} Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.). McClelland & Stewart. pp. 130–158, 173, 203–233, 258. ISBN 978-0-7710-6514-9.
67. ^ McGonigal, Richard Morton (1962). "Intro". The Conscription Crisis in Quebec – 1917: a Study in Canadian Dualism. Harvard University Press.
68. ^ Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, Politics and the Judicial Process in Canada. University of Calgary Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
69. ^ Bryce, Robert B. (1986). Maturing in Hard Times: Canada's Department of Finance through the Great Depression. McGill-Queen's. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-7735-0555-1.
70. ^ Mulvale, James P (July 11, 2008). "Basic Income and the Canadian Welfare State: Exploring the Realms of Possibility". Basic Income Studies. 3 (1). doi:10.2202/1932-0183.1084.
71. ^ Humphreys, Edward (2013). Great Canadian Battles: Heroism and Courage Through the Years. Arcturus Publishing. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-78404-098-7.
72. ^ Goddard, Lance (2005). Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands. Dundurn Press. pp. 225–232. ISBN 978-1-55002-547-7.
73. ^ Bothwell, Robert (2007). Alliance and illusion: Canada and the world, 1945–1984. UBC Press. pp. 11, 31. ISBN 978-0-7748-1368-6.
74. ^ Alfred Buckner, Phillip (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 135–138. ISBN 978-0-19-927164-1.
75. ^ Boyer, J. Patrick (1996). Direct Democracy in Canada: The History and Future of Referendums. Dundurn Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-1-4597-1884-5.
76. ^ Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-8020-8481-1.
77. ^ Landry, Rodrigue; Forgues, Éric (May 2007). "Official language minorities in Canada: an introduction". International Journal of the Sociology of Language (185): 1–9. doi:10.1515/IJSL.2007.022.
78. ^ Esses, Victoria M; Gardner, RC (July 1996). "Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 28 (3): 145–152. doi:10.1037/h0084934.
79. ^ Sarrouh, Elissar (January 22, 2002). "Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development" (PDF). Social Policy Series, No. 1. United Nations. pp. 14–16, 22–37. July 17, 2010 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
80. ^ "The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms". Ministère de la Justice. March 15, 2021. September 22, 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
81. ^ "Proclamation of the Constitution Act, 1982". Government of Canada. May 5, 2014. February 11, 2017 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
82. ^ {{multiref2 | Trepanier, Peter (2004). "Some Visual Aspects of the Monarchical Tradition" (PDF). Canadian Parliamentary Review. March 4, 2016 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත (PDF). සම්ප්‍රවේශය February 10, 2017. | Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain, eds. (2004). Canadian Politics (4th ed.). Broadview Press. pp. 250–254, 344–347. ISBN 978-1-55111-595-5.
83. ^ Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659. JSTOR 24674996. }}
84. ^ Roberts, Lance W.; Clifton, Rodney A.; Ferguson, Barry (2005). Recent Social Trends in Canada, 1960–2000. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 415. ISBN 978-0-7735-7314-7.
85. ^ Munroe, HD (2009). "The October Crisis Revisited: Counterterrorism as Strategic Choice, Political Result, and Organizational Practice". Terrorism and Political Violence. 21 (2): 288–305. doi:10.1080/09546550902765623.
86. ^ ^{a b} Sorens, J (December 2004). "Globalization, secessionism, and autonomy". Electoral Studies. 23 (4): 727–752. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2003.10.003.
87. ^
    • Leblanc, Daniel (August 13, 2010). "A brief history of the Bloc Québécois". The Globe and Mail. September 1, 2010 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
    • Betz, Hans-Georg; Immerfall, Stefan (1998). The New Politics of the Right: Neo-Populist Parties and Movements in Established Democracies. St. Martin's Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-312-21134-9.
88. ^ Schmid, Carol L. (2001). The Politics of Language: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective: Conflict, Identity, and Cultural Pluralism in Comparative Perspective. Oxford University Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-803150-5.
89. ^ "Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182". Government of Canada. June 22, 2008 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය May 23, 2011.
90. ^ Sourour, Teresa K (1991). "Report of Coroner's Investigation" (PDF). December 28, 2016 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය March 8, 2017.
91. ^ "The Oka Crisis". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2000. August 4, 2011 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය May 23, 2011.
92. ^ Roach, Kent (2003). September 11: consequences for Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 15, 59–61, 194. ISBN 978-0-7735-2584-9.
93. ^ Defence, National (July 25, 2016). "Canadian Armed Forces operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina". Canada.ca. March 23, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය March 23, 2024.
94. ^
    • Foot, Richard (August 2, 2019). "Canadian Peacekeepers in Somalia". thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Historica Canada. March 12, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය February 26, 2024.
    • Cohen, S.A. (2010). Israel's Armed Forces in Comparative Perspective. BESA studies in international security. Taylor & Francis. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-135-16956-5. March 4, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය February 27, 2024.
95. ^
    • "Canada and the War in Afghanistan". The Canadian Encyclopedia. September 11, 2001. January 29, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය March 25, 2024. In total, 165 Canadians died during the war in Afghanistan (158 soldiers, 7 civilians). More than 2,000 members of the CAF were wounded or injured during the war.
    • Defence, National (August 30, 2016). "Canada in Afghanistan (2001-2014)". Canada.ca. March 25, 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය March 25, 2024.
96. ^ Hehir, Aidan; Murray, Robert (2013). Libya, the Responsibility to Protect and the Future of Humanitarian Intervention. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-137-27396-3.
97. ^ Juneau, Thomas (2015). "Canada's Policy to Confront the Islamic State". Canadian Global Affairs Institute. December 11, 2015 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය December 10, 2015.
98. ^ "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19)". Government of Canada. 2021. June 13, 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
99. ^ "Catholic group to release all records from Marievel, Kamloops residential schools". CTV News. June 25, 2021. June 25, 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත.
100. ^ They Came for the Children: Canada, Aboriginal Peoples, and Residential Schools. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. 2012. p. intro. ISBN 978-1-100-19995-5.