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මෙම පිටුවෙහි මූලාශ්‍රය නැරඹීමට හා පිටපත් කිරීමට ඔබ හට හැකිය.
{{Short description|none}}
{{use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=September 2023}}<!-- I am currently Translating this article. After the Translate is Complete it will move to the main article.  -->
{{Buddhism}}

'''බුද්ධාගමේ ඉතිහාසය''' ක්‍රිස්තු පූර්ව 5 වැනි සියවස දක්වා දිව යයි. [[බුද්ධාගම]] පැරණි [[ඉන්දියාව|ඉන්දියාවේ]], පුරාණ [[මගධ|මගධ රාජධානියේ]] සහ ඒ අවට ඇති වූ අතර, එය අත්හළ [[සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතම|සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතමයන්ගේ]] ඉගැන්වීම් මත පදනම් වේ. [[මධ්‍යම ආසියාව|මධ්‍යම]], [[නැගෙනහිර ආසියාව|නැඟෙනහිර]] සහ [[අග්නිදිග ආසියාව]] පුරා [[ඉන්දියානු උප මහාද්වීපය|ඉන්දියානු උප මහද්වීපයේ]] ඊසාන දිග ප්‍රදේශයේ සිට ආගම ව්‍යාප්ත වූ බැවින් එය පරිණාමය විය. වරෙක එය [[ආසියාව|ආසියාවේ]] බොහෝ ප්‍රදේශවලට බලපෑවේ ය.

බුද්ධාගමේ ඉතිහාසය විවිධ ව්‍යාපාර, භේද සහ දාර්ශනික පාසල්වල වර්ධනය මගින් ද සංලක්ෂිත වේ, ඒවා අතර [[ථේරවාද බුදු දහම|ථේරවාද]], [[මහායාන බුදු දහම|මහායාන]] සහ [[වජ්‍රයානය|වජ්‍රයාන]] සම්ප්‍රදායන්, ප්‍රසාරණය හා පසුබැසීමේ ප්‍රතිවිරුද්ධ කාල පරිච්ඡේදයන් සමඟ.

== ශාක්‍යමුණි බුදුන් (ක්‍රි.පූ. 5 වැනි සියවස) ==
[[File:Hutchinsonsstory00londuoft 0169.jpg|thumb|left |upright|හචිසන්ගේ ජාතියේ කතාවේ ඉන්දියාව පිළිබඳ පරිච්ඡේදයේ ඇති රූපය, [[අජාසත්ත රජ|අජාතසත්ත]] තම වරද සමනය කිරීම සඳහා බුදුන් වහන්සේ වෙත පැමිණෙන ආකාරය නිරූපණය කරයි.]]
[[File:Buddhist Expansion.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.15 |Buddhist expansion, from Buddhist heartland in northern India (dark orange) starting 5th century BC, to Buddhist majority realm (orange), and historical extent of Buddhism influences (yellow). Mahayana (red arrow), Theravada (green arrow), and Tantric-Vajrayana (blue arrow).]]
[[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|thumb|upright=1.15 |The [[Mahajanapadas]] were sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics around the lifetime of [[Gautama Buddha]] (563–483 BCE), located mainly across the fertile [[Indo-Gangetic plains]], there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of [[Ancient India]].]]

[[සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතම|සිද්ධාර්ථ ගෞතම බුදුන් වහන්සේ]] (ක්‍රි.පූ. 5 වැනි සියවස) බුද්ධාගමේ ඓතිහාසික නිර්මාතෘවරයා විය. මුල් මූලාශ්‍රවල සඳහන් වන්නේ බෝධිසත්වයන් වර්තමානයේ නූතන [[නේපාලය|නේපාලයේ]] පිහිටි පැරණි ඉන්දියාවේ [[කෝසල රාජධානිය|කෝසල රාජධානියේ]] කොටසක් වූ කුඩා ශාක්‍ය (පාලි: [[ශාක්‍ය]]) ජනරජයේ උපත ලැබූ බව යි.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=14}} එබැවින් උන්වහන්සේ ශාක්‍යමුණි (වචනාර්ථයෙන්: "ශාක්‍ය වංශයේ ඍෂිවරයා") ලෙස ද හැඳින්වේ.

[[මුල් බෞද්ධ ග්‍රන්ථ|මුල් බෞද්ධ ග්‍රන්ථවල]] බුදුන්ගේ අඛණ්ඩ ජීවිතයක් නොමැත, ක්‍රි.පූ. 200 න් පසුව පමණක් විවිධ "චරිතාපදාන" ලියා ඇති අතර බොහෝ පුරාවෘත්තමය සැරසිලි ඇත.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=14–15}} කෙසේ වෙතත් ගෞතමයන් වහන්සේ ගෘහපති ජීවිතය අත්හැර ශ්‍රමණ තාපසයකු ලෙස කලක් විවිධ ගුරුවරුන් යටතේ අධ්‍යාපනය ලබා [[භාවනාව|භාවනාවෙන්]] [[නිර්වාණය]] (නිවාරණය) සහ [[බෝධිය]] (පිබිදීම) ලබා ගත් බව සියලුම ග්‍රන්ථවල එකඟ වේ.

උන්වහන්සේ ජීවිතයේ ඉතිරි වසර 45 තුළ, ඔහු නැගෙනහිර-මධ්‍යම [[ඉන්දියාව|ඉන්දියාවේ]] ගංගා තැනිතලාවේ ([[ගංගා නදිය|ගංගා නදියේ]] සහ එහි අතු ගංගාවල ප්‍රදේශය) සංචාරය කළේ ය, විවිධ කුලවල විවිධ පුද්ගලයින්ට තම ධර්මය උගන්වමින් සහ භික්ෂූන් වහන්සේලා තම ශාසනයට ආරම්භ කළේය. බුදුන් වහන්සේ සිය ශ්‍රාවකයන් එව්වේ ඉන්දියාව පුරා ඉගැන්වීම ප්‍රචාරය කිරීමට ය.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=24}} උන්වහන්සේ කන්‍යා සොහොයුරියන්ගේ නියෝගයක් ද ආරම්භ කළේ ය.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=25}} උන්වහන්සේ තම ගෝලයන්ගෙන් ඉල්ලා සිටියේ දේශීය භාෂාවෙන් හෝ උපභාෂාවෙන් උගන්වන ලෙසයි. උන්වහන්සේ සැවැත්ති, රජගහ සහ වේසාලි (Skt. Śrāvasti, Rājagrha, Vaisalī){{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=24}} යන නගර අසල බොහෝ කාලයක් ගත කළේ ය. 80 වැනි වියේ දී [[ගෞතම බුද්ධ පරිනිර්වාණය|පරිනිර්වාණය]] විට ඔහුට දහස් ගණනක් අනුගාමිකයන් සිටියහ.

==Early Buddhism==
{{Further|Pre-sectarian Buddhism}}

After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist [[sangha]] (monastic community) remained centered on the Ganges valley, spreading gradually from its ancient heartland. The canonical sources record various councils, where the monastic [[Sangha]] recited and organized the orally transmitted collections of the Buddha's teachings and settled certain disciplinary problems within the community. Modern scholarship has questioned the accuracy and historicity of these traditional accounts.<ref>Berkwitz, Stephen C. South Asian Buddhism: A Survey, Routledge, 2012, p. 43.</ref>

The [[first Buddhist council]] is traditionally said to have been held just after Buddha's [[Parinirvana]], and presided over by [[Mahākāśyapa]], one of his most senior disciples, at Rājagṛha (today's [[Rajgir]]) with the support of king [[Ajatashatru|Ajātasattu]]. According to Charles Prebish, almost all scholars have questioned the historicity of this first council.{{sfn|Prebish|1975}}{{page needed|date=September 2023}}

==Mauryan empire (322–180 BCE)==
{{Further|Ashoka the Great|Maurya Empire}}
{{See also|Edicts of Ashoka|Ashokavadana}}
{{multiple image |total_width=440 |align=center
|image1=Buddha Sakyamuni on the Rummindei pillar of Ashoka.jpg |caption1=The words "[[Buddha|Bu-dhe]]" (𑀩𑀼𑀥𑁂, the [[Buddha]]) and "[[Shakyas|Sa-kya]]-[[Muni (Saint)|mu-nī]]" ( [[wikt:𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻|𑀲𑀓𑁆𑀬𑀫𑀼𑀦𑀻]], "Sage of the [[Shakyas]]") in [[Brahmi script]], on [[Ashoka]]'s [[Lumbini pillar inscription]] (circa 250 BCE).
|image2=6thPillarOfAshoka.JPG |caption2=Fragment of the 6th Pillar [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict of Aśoka]] (238 BCE), in [[Brāhmī script|Brāhmī]], sandstone. [[British Museum]].
}}
[[File:Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png|thumb|right |upright=1.15|The [[Maurya Empire]] under [[Ashoka|Emperor Aśoka]] was the world's first major Buddhist state. It established free hospitals and free education and promoted human rights. Territories of the Maurya Empire conceptualized as core areas or linear networks separated by large autonomous regions in the works of scholars such as: historians [[Hermann Kulke]] and [[Dietmar Rothermund]];{{sfn|Hermann Kulke|2004|p=69-70}} [[Burton Stein]];<ref name="Stein2010">{{citation|last=Stein|first=Burton|title=A History of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=GBS.PA74 |year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-2351-1|page=74 |quote=In the past it was not uncommon for historians to conflate the vast space thus outlined with the oppressive realm described in the Arthashastra and to posit one of the earliest and certainly one of the largest totalitarian regimes in all of history. Such a picture is no longer considered believable; at present what is taken to be the realm of Ashoka is a discontinuous set of several core regions separated by very large areas occupied by relatively autonomous peoples.}}</ref> David Ludden;<ref>
{{citation |last=Ludden |first=David|title=India and South Asia: A Short History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EbFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |year=2013|publisher=Oneworld Publications|isbn=978-1-78074-108-6|pages=28–30}}
</ref> and [[Romila Thapar]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015 |pp=451–466}} anthropologists [[Monica L. Smith]]{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015 |p=453}} and [[Stanley Tambiah]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015 |pp=451–466}} archaeologist [[Robin Coningham]];{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015 |pp=451–466}} and historical demographer [[Tim Dyson]].<ref>{{citation|last=Dyson|first=Tim|title=A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TRtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |year=2018|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-882905-8 |pages=16–17|quote=Magadha power came to extend over the main cities and communication routes of the Ganges basin. Then, under Chandragupta Maurya (c.321–297 bce), and subsequently Ashoka his grandson, Pataliputra became the centre of the loose-knit Mauryan 'Empire' which during Ashoka's reign (c.268–232 bce) briefly had a presence throughout the main urban centres and arteries of the subcontinent, except for the extreme south.}}</ref>]]

===Second Buddhist council and first schism===
[[File:War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|{{center|1=[[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s defending the city of [[Kusinagara]], as depicted at [[Sanchi]]. The leader of the Mallakas, under siege, by the seven gods, during the ''War of the Relics'', which were objects associated with the Buddha.<br>The Mallakas were an [[Republic#Indian subcontinent|ancient Indian republic]] ([[Gaṇasaṅgha|{{transliteration|sa|gaṇasaṅgha}}]]) that constituted one of the ''solasa'' (sixteen) [[Mahajanapadas]] (great realms) of [[ancient India]] as mentioned in the ''[[Anguttara Nikaya]]''.<ref>''Asiatic Mythology'' by J. Hackin [https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC&pg=PA83 pp. 83ff]</ref>}}]]

After an initial period of unity, divisions in the sangha or monastic community led to the first schism of the sangha into two groups: the [[Sthavira nikāya|Sthavira]] (Elders) and [[Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasamghika]] (Great Sangha). Most scholars agree that the schism was caused by disagreements over points of [[vinaya]] (monastic discipline).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=88–90}} Over time, these two monastic fraternities would further divide into various [[Early Buddhist schools|Early Buddhist Schools]].

Lamotte and Hirakawa both maintain that the first schism in the Buddhist sangha occurred during the reign of Ashoka.<ref>Lamotte, Étienne (1988) History of Indian Buddhism: From the Origins to the Śaka Era, translated from the French by Sara Boin-Webb, Louvain: Peeters Press</ref><ref>Hirakawa, Akira (1990), [https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030 A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamuni to Early Mahāyāna], tr. Paul Groner, University of Hawaii Press</ref> According to scholar Collett Cox "most scholars would agree that even though the roots of the earliest recognized groups predate [[Ashoka|Aśoka]], their actual separation did not occur until after his death."{{sfnp|Cox|1995|p=23}} According to the Theravada tradition, the split took place at the [[Second Buddhist council]], which took place at [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]], approximately one hundred years after Gautama Buddha's [[parinirvana|parinirvāṇa]]. While the second council probably was a historical event,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author=((The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica)) |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Buddhist-council |title=Buddhist Council |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |date=19 Dec 2017 |access-date=12 September 2023}}</ref> traditions regarding the Second Council are confusing and ambiguous. According to the Theravada tradition the overall result was the first schism in the [[Sangha (Buddhism)|sangha]], between the Sthavira nikāya and the Mahāsāṃghikas, although it is not agreed upon by all what the cause of this split was.{{sfn|Skilton|2004|p=47}}

The Sthaviras gave birth to a large number of influential schools including the [[Sarvāstivāda]], the [[Pudgalavāda]] (also known as ''Vatsīputrīya''), the [[Dharmaguptaka]]s and the [[Vibhajyavāda]] (the [[Theravada|Theravādins]] being descended from these. The [[Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasamghikas]] meanwhile also developed their own schools and doctrines early on, which can be seen in texts like the [[Mahavastu]], associated with the [[Lokottaravāda]], or ‘Transcendentalist’ school, who might be the same as the [[Ekavyāvahārika]]s or "One-utterancers".{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=98}} This school has been seen as foreshadowing certain [[Mahayana]] ideas, especially due to their view that all of Gautama Buddha's acts were "transcendental" or "supramundane", even those performed before his Buddhahood.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=98}}

In the third century BCE, some Buddhists began introducing new systematized teachings called [[Abhidharma]], based on previous lists or tables (''Matrka'') of main doctrinal topics.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=90}} Unlike the [[Nikāya|Nikayas]], which were prose [[Sutta Pitaka|sutras]] or discourses, the Abhidharma literature consisted of systematic doctrinal exposition and often differed across the Buddhist schools who disagreed on points of doctrine.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=90}} Abhidharma sought to analyze all experience into its ultimate constituents, phenomenal events or processes called ''dharmas''. These texts further contributed to the development of sectarian identities.{{sfnp|Cox|1995|p=23}} The various splits within the monastic organization went together with the introduction and emphasis on [[Abhidhamma|Abhidhammic literature]] by some schools. This literature was specific to each school, and arguments and disputes between the schools were often based on these Abhidhammic writings. However, actual splits were originally based on disagreements on [[vinaya]] (monastic discipline), though later on, by about 100 [[Common Era|CE]] or earlier, they could be based on doctrinal disagreement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harvey |first=Peter |title=Introduction to Buddhism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |page=74}}</ref> Pre-sectarian Buddhism, however, did not have Abhidhammic scriptures, except perhaps for a basic framework, and not all of the early schools developed an Abhidhamma literature.

===Ashokan missions===
[[File:Asoka̠ Buddhist Missions.png|thumb|right|Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of [[Ashoka]].]]

During the reign of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] Emperor [[Ashoka]] (268–232 BCE), Buddhism gained royal support and began to spread more widely, reaching most of the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=100}} After his [[Kalinga War|invasion of Kalinga]], [[Ashoka]] seems to have experienced remorse and began working to improve the lives of his subjects. [[Ashoka]] also built wells, rest-houses and hospitals for humans and animals. He also abolished torture, royal hunting trips and perhaps even the death penalty.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=101}} [[Ashoka]] also supported non-Buddhist faiths like [[Jainism]] and [[Historical Vedic religion|Brahmanism]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=102}} [[Ashoka]] propagated religion by building [[stupa]]s and pillars urging, among other things, respect of all animal life and enjoining people to follow the [[Dharma]]. He has been hailed by Buddhist sources as the model for the compassionate [[Chakravarti (Sanskrit term)|chakravartin]] (wheel turning monarch).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=100}}

Another feature of Mauryan Buddhism was the worship and veneration of [[stupa]]s, large mounds which contained relics ([[Pali]]: [[Śarīra|''sarīra'']]) of the Buddha or other saints within.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=103}} It was believed that the practice of devotion to these relics and stupas could bring blessings.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=103}} Perhaps the best-preserved example of a Mauryan Buddhist site is the [[Great Stupa of Sanchi]] (dating from the 3rd century BCE).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=103}}

According to the plates and pillars left by Aśoka (known as the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]), emissaries were sent to various countries in order to spread Buddhism, as far south as [[Sri Lanka]] and as far west as the Greek kingdoms, in particular the neighboring [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]], and possibly even farther to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].

===Third council===
[[Theravada|Theravadin]] sources state that [[Ashoka]] convened the [[third Buddhist council]] around 250 BCE at Pataliputra (today's [[Patna, India|Patna]]) with the elder [[Moggaliputtatissa]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=102}} The objective of the council was to purify the Saṅgha, particularly from non-Buddhist ascetics who had been attracted by the royal patronage.<ref>Centāraśśēri, Ṭi Ecc Pi (1998). ''History of the Indigenous Indians'', p. 64. APH Publishing. {{ISBN|978-81-7024-959-7}}.</ref> Following the council, Buddhist missionaries were dispatched throughout the known world, as is recorded in some of the edicts of Ashoka.

=== Proselytism in the Hellenistic world ===
Some of the [[Edicts of Ashoka]] describe the efforts made by him to propagate the Buddhist faith throughout the Hellenistic world, which at that time formed an uninterrupted cultural continuum from the borders of India to Greece. The edicts indicate a clear understanding of the political organization in Hellenistic territories: the names and locations of the main Greek monarchs of the time are identified, and they are claimed as recipients of Buddhist [[proselytism]]: [[Antiochus II Theos]] of the [[Seleucid Kingdom]] (261–246 BCE), [[Ptolemy II of Egypt|Ptolemy II Philadelphos]] of Egypt (285–247 BCE), [[Antigonus Gonatas]] of Macedonia (276–239 BCE), [[Magas of Cyrene|Magas]] (288–258 BCE) in [[Cyrenaica]] (modern [[Libya]]), and [[Alexander II of Epirus|Alexander II]] (272–255 BCE) in [[Epirus]] (modern Northwestern [[Greece]]). One of the edicts states:

:"The conquest by [[Dharma]] has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred [[yojana]]s (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the [[Chola]]s, the [[Pandya]]s, and as far as [[Tamraparni]] ([[Sri Lanka]])." ([[Edicts of Ashoka|Edicts of Aśoka]], 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).

Furthermore, according to the [[Mahavamsa]] (XII), some of Ashoka's emissaries were Greek ([[Yona]]), particularly one named [[Dharmaraksita|Dhammarakkhita]]. He also issued edicts in the Greek language as well as in Aramaic. One of them, found in Kandahar, advocates the adoption of "piety" (using the Greek term ''[[eusebeia]]'' for [[Dharma]]) to the Greek community.<ref>{{cite web |title=Afghanistan History – Mauryans & Graeco-Bactrians (c. 305 B.C. - 48 B.C.) |website=Afghanan Dot Net |url=http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/mauryans.htm |url-status=usurped |archive-date=2012-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201030234/http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/mauryans.htm}}</ref>

It is not clear how much these interactions may have been influential, but authors like [[Robert Linssen]] have commented that Buddhism may have influenced Western thought and religion at that time. Linssen points to the presence of Buddhist communities in the Hellenistic world around that period, in particular in [[Alexandria]] (mentioned by [[Clement of Alexandria]]), and to the pre-Christian monastic order of the [[Therapeutae]] (possibly a deformation of the Pāli word "[[Theravada|Theravāda]]"<ref name=Thundy>{{cite book| last = Thundy| first = Zacharias P.| title = Buddha and Christ: Nativity Stories & Indian Traditions | publisher = [[Brill Publishers]] | date = 1993| pages = 244–249| isbn = 9004097414}}</ref>), who may have "almost entirely drawn (its) inspiration from the teaching and practices of Buddhist asceticism"<ref>"Zen living", [[Robert Linssen]]</ref> and may even have been descendants of Aśoka's emissaries to the West.<ref>"The Original Jesus" (Element Books, Shaftesbury, 1995), Elmar R Gruber, Holger Kersten</ref> Philosophers like [[Hegesias of Cyrene]] and [[Pyrrho]] are sometimes thought to have been influenced by Buddhist teachings.<ref>{{cite magazine |quote=The philosopher Hegesias of Cyrene (nicknamed ''Peisithanatos'', 'The advocate of death') was a contemporary of Magas and was probably influenced by the teachings of the Buddhist missionaries to Cyrene and Alexandria. His influence was such that he was ultimately prohibited from teaching. |first=Jean-Marie |last=Lafont |title=[[Inalco]] |magazine=Les Dossiers d'Archéologie |number=254 |page=78}}</ref><ref>Adrian Kuzminski, Pyrrhonism: How the Ancient Greeks Reinvented Buddhism (Studies in Comparative Philosophy and Religion) 2008</ref>

Buddhist gravestones from the [[Ptolemaic period]] have also been found in Alexandria, decorated with depictions of the Dharma wheel.<ref>Tarn, ''The Greeks in Bactria and India''</ref> The presence of Buddhists in Alexandria has even drawn the conclusion that they influenced monastic Christianity.<ref>[[Robert Linssen]], ''Zen living''</ref> In the 2nd century CE, the Christian dogmatist, [[Clement of Alexandria]] recognized Bactrian ''[[Sramana|śramanas]]'' and Indian ''[[gymnosophist]]s'' for their influence on Greek thought.<ref>{{cite web |author=Clement of Alexandria |title=The Stromata, or Miscellanies |at=Book I, Chapter XV |via=Early Christian Writings |url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book1.html |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510193118/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/clement-stromata-book1.html |archive-date=2010-05-10 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Establishment of Sri Lanka Buddhism===
{{Further|Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhism in Burma}}
[[File:Jetavanaramaya Stupa.jpg|thumb|[[Jetavanaramaya]] in [[Anuradhapura]], [[Sri Lanka]] is the biggest brick structure in the world.<ref name="IESL">{{cite web | url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/130707/education/national-engineering-technological-heritage-gallery-ceremonially-opened-51290.html | title=National Engineering Technological Heritage Gallery ceremonially opened | publisher=The Sunday Times | access-date=30 September 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112203956/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/130707/education/national-engineering-technological-heritage-gallery-ceremonially-opened-51290.html | archive-date=12 November 2013 }}</ref>]]
Sri Lankan chronicles like the ''[[Dipavamsa]]'' state that Ashoka's son [[Mahinda (buddhist monk)|Mahinda]] brought Buddhism to the island during the 2nd century BCE. In addition, Ashoka's daughter, [[Sanghamitta|Saṅghamitta]] also established the [[bhikkhunī]] (order for nuns) in Sri Lanka, also bringing with her a sapling of the sacred [[Bodhi Tree|bodhi tree]] that was subsequently planted in [[Anuradhapura]]. These two figures are seen as the mythical founders of the Sri Lankan [[Theravada]].<ref>Crosby, Kate (2013), ''Theravada Buddhism: Continuity, Diversity, and Identity'', Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 1–3, {{ISBN|978-1-4051-8907-1}}</ref> They are said to have converted the King [[Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura|Devanampiya Tissa]] (307–267 BCE) and many of the nobility.

The first architectural records of Buddha images, however, actually come from the reign of King [[Vasabha of Anuradhapura|Vasabha]] (65–109 CE).<ref>Bandaranayake, S.D. Sinhalese Monastic Architecture: The Viháras of Anurádhapura, p. 22</ref> The major Buddhist monasteries and schools in Ancient Sri Lanka were [[Mahavihara|Mahāvihāra]], [[Abhayagiri vihāra|Abhayagiri]] and [[Jetavana]].{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=280}} The [[Pali Canon|Pāli canon]] was written down during the 1st century BCE to preserve the teaching in a time of war and famine.<ref>Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, a social history from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, Routledge; 2 edition (July 26, 2006), p. 152</ref> It is the only complete collection of [[Buddhist texts]] to survive in a [[Middle Indo-Aryan languages|Middle Indo-Aryan language]].<ref>Bhikkhu Bodhi, In the Buddha's words, p. 13</ref> It reflects the tradition of the [[Mahavihara]] school. Later [[Pali]] [[Mahavihara]] commentators of the [[Theravada]] such as [[Buddhaghosa|Buddhaghoṣa]] (4th–5th century) and [[Dhammapala|Dhammapāla]] (5th–6th century), systematized the traditional Sri Lankan commentary literature ([[Atthakatha]]).

Although [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna Buddhism]] gained some influence in Sri Lanka as it was studied in [[Abhayagiri vihāra|Abhayagiri]] and [[Jetavana]], the [[Mahavihara]] (“Great Monastery”) school became dominant in Sri Lanka following the reign of [[Parakramabahu I]] (1153–1186), who abolished the Abhayagiri and Jetavanin traditions.<ref>Hirakawa, Akira; Groner, Paul (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=XjjwjC7rcOYC ''A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna'']. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 126. {{ISBN|978-81-208-0955-0}}.</ref>

==Mahāyāna Buddhism==
{{Further|Mahayana}}
[[File:Amaravati Stupa relief at Museum.jpg|thumb|A relief depicting the [[Amarāvatī Stupa]], a major site in [[Andhra Pradesh, India]].]]
The Buddhist movement that became known as Mahayana (Great Vehicle) and also the Bodhisattvayana, began sometime between 150 BCE and 100 CE, drawing on both [[Mahāsāṃghika|Mahasamghika]] and [[Sarvastivada]] trends.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=108, 110}} The earliest inscription which is recognizably Mahayana dates from 180 CE and is found in [[Mathura]].<ref>Neelis, Jason. ''Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks.''2010. p. 141</ref>

The Mahayana emphasized the [[Bodhisattva]] path to full [[Buddhahood]] (in contrast to the spiritual goal of [[arhat]]ship). It emerged as a set of loose groups associated with new texts named the [[Mahayana sutras]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=108}} The Mahayana sutras promoted new doctrines, such as the idea that "there exist other Buddhas who are simultaneously preaching in countless other world-systems".{{sfn|Snellgrove|2004|p=56}} In time Mahayana Bodhisattvas and also multiple Buddhas came to be seen as transcendental beneficent beings who were subjects of devotion.{{sfn|Snellgrove|2004|p=58}}

Mahayana remained a minority among Indian Buddhists for some time, growing slowly until about half of all monks encountered by [[Xuanzang]] in 7th-century India were Mahayanists.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=109}} Early Mahayana schools of thought included the [[Madhyamaka|Mādhyamaka]], [[Yogacara|Yogācāra]], and [[Buddha-nature]] (''Tathāgatagarbha'') teachings. Mahayana is today the dominant form of [[East Asian Buddhism|Buddhism in East Asia]] and Tibet.

Several scholars have suggested that the [[Prajnaparamita|Prajñāpāramitā sūtras]], which are among the earliest Mahāyāna sūtras,<ref>Williams, Paul. ''Buddhist Thought.'' Routledge, 2000, p. 131.</ref><ref>Williams, Paul. ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition.'' Routledge, 2009, p. 47.</ref> developed among the [[Mahāsāṃghika]] along the [[Krishna River|Kṛṣṇa River]] in the [[Andhra Pradesh#Early history|Āndhra]] region of [[South India]].<ref>Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krsna River."</ref> The earliest Mahāyāna sūtras to include the very first versions of the [[Prajñāpāramitā]] genre, along with texts concerning [[Aksobhya|Akṣobhya Buddha]], which were probably written down in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.<ref name="Hirakawa Akira 1993, p. 263">Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Warder|2000|p=335}}: "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras".</ref><ref>Guang Xing. ''The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.'' 2004. pp. 65–66</ref><ref>Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). ''A History of Indian Buddhism''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 252, 253</ref> [[A.K. Warder]] believes that "the Mahāyāna originated in the south of India and almost certainly in the Āndhra country."{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=313}} Anthony Barber and Sree Padma also trace Mahayana Buddhism to ancient Buddhist sites in the lower Kṛṣṇa Valley, including [[Amaravati Stupa]], [[Nagarjunakonda|Nāgārjunakoṇḍā]] and [[Jaggaiahpet|Jaggayyapeṭa]].<ref>Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. ''Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra.'' SUNY Press 2008, p. 2.</ref>

==Shunga dynasty (2nd–1st century BCE)==
{{Further|Shunga Empire}}
{{multiple image |total_width=500
|image1=Sanchi Great Stupa Mauryan configuration.jpg |caption1=Approximate reconstitution of the Great Stupa with [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashoka Pillar]], [[Sanchi]], India.
|image2=Sanchi Great Stupa under the Sungas.jpg |caption2=During 2nd century BCE the [[Sanchi]] stupa was nearly doubled in diameter, was encased in stone, and a [[balustrade]] and railing was built around it.<ref>''Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD'', Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jzkyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 pp. 88ff]</ref>
}}
The [[Shunga dynasty]] (185–73 BCE) was established about 50 years after Ashoka's death. After assassinating King [[Brhadrata]] (last of the [[Mauryan]] rulers), military commander-in-chief [[Pushyamitra Shunga]] took the throne. Buddhist religious scriptures such as the [[Ashokavadana|Aśokāvadāna]] allege that Pushyamitra (an orthodox [[Brahmin]]) was hostile towards Buddhists and persecuted the Buddhist faith. Buddhists wrote that he "destroyed hundreds of monasteries and killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Monks":<ref>''[[Divyavadana|Divyāvadāna]]'', pp. 429–434</ref> 840,000 Buddhist [[stupa]]s which had been built by Ashoka were destroyed, and 100 gold coins were offered for the head of each Buddhist monk.<ref>Indian Historical Quarterly Vol. XXII, pp. 81 ff cited in Hars, p. 407.{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}{{better source needed|date=March 2018}}</ref>

Modern historians, however, dispute this view in the light of literary and archaeological evidence. They opine that following Ashoka's sponsorship of Buddhism, it is possible that Buddhist institutions fell on harder times under the Shungas, but no evidence of active persecution has been noted. [[Etienne Lamotte]] observes: "To judge from the documents, Pushyamitra must be acquitted through lack of proof."<ref>{{Cite web |website=The Koneraad Elst Site |url=http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/acat/ch2.htm |title=2. Ashoka and Pushyamitra, iconoclasts? |access-date=2015-01-12 |archive-date=2017-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170401171759/http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/books/acat/ch2.htm |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Another eminent historian, [[Romila Thapar]] points to archaeological evidence that "suggests the contrary" to the claim that "Pushyamitra was a fanatical anti-Buddhist" and that he "never actually destroyed 840,000 stupas as claimed by Buddhist works, if any". Thapar stresses that Buddhist accounts are probably hyperbolic renditions of Pushyamitra's attack of the Mauryas, and merely reflect the desperate frustration of the Buddhist religious figures in the face of the possibly irreversible decline in the importance of their religion under the Shungas.<ref>Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 p. 200</ref>

During the period, Buddhist monks deserted the [[Ganges]] valley, following either the northern road (''[[uttarapatha]]'') or the southern road (''dakṣinapatha'').<ref>{{harvnb|Tissot|1970|p=128}}: "The monks, expelled from the Ganges valley, maybe by sectarian disputes, followed the northern road (Uttarapatha) or the northern road (Daksinapatha), which conducted them to the Northwest for some, and to the Occidental ocean for the others, with multiple artistic creations marking their respective roads"</ref> Conversely, Buddhist artistic creation stopped in the old [[Magadha]] area, to reposition itself either in the northwest area of [[Gandhara|Gandhāra]] and [[Mathura, Uttar Pradesh|Mathura]] or in the southeast around [[Amaravati Stupa]]. Some artistic activity also occurred in central India, as in [[Bharhut|Bhārhut]], to which the Shungas may or may not have contributed.

==Greco-Buddhism==
{{Main|Greco-Buddhism}}
{{See also|Greco-Buddhist art|Buddhism and the Roman world}}
[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|A [[Greco-Buddhist]] statue, one of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE, [[Gandhara]].]]

The [[Greco-Bactrian]] king [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]] (reigned c. 200–180 BCE) invaded the Indian Subcontinent, establishing an [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greek kingdom]] that was to last in parts of Northwest South Asia until the end of the 1st century CE.

Buddhism flourished under the Indo-Greek and Greco-Bactrian kings. One of the most famous Indo-Greek kings is [[Menander I|Menander]] (reigned c. 160–135 BCE). He may have converted to Buddhism<ref>Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p. 124</ref> and is presented in the Mahāyāna tradition as one of the great benefactors of the faith, on a par with king Aśoka or the later Kushan king [[Kanishka|Kaniśka]]. Menander's coins bear designs of the eight-spoked [[Dharmachakra|dharma wheel]], a classic Buddhist symbol.

Direct cultural exchange is also suggested by a dialogue called the Debate of King Milinda ([[Milinda Panha|''Milinda Pañha'']]) which recounts a discussion between [[Menander I|Menander]] and the Buddhist monk [[Nagasena|Nāgasena]], who was himself a student of the Greek Buddhist monk [[Mahadharmaraksita]]. Upon Menander's death, the honor of sharing his remains was claimed by the cities under his rule, and they were enshrined in [[stupa]]s, in a parallel with the historic Buddha.<ref>[[Plutarch]], Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6</ref> Several of Menander's [[Indo-Greek]] successors inscribed "Follower of the Dharma," in the [[Kharoshthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] script, on their coins.<ref>{{cite book |title=Foreign Impact on Indian Life and Culture (c. 326 B.C. to c. 300 A.D.) |author=Satyendra Nath Naskar |publisher=Abhinav Publications |year=1996 |page=69 |isbn=978-81-7017-298-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SuEBGgRHHuIC&pg=PA69}}</ref>

During the first century BCE the first [[anthropomorphic]] representations of the Buddha are found in the lands ruled by the Indo-Greeks, in a realistic style known as [[Greco-Buddhist]].<ref>Marshall, "The Buddhist art of Gandhara", p. 101</ref> Many of the stylistic elements in the representations of the Buddha point to Greek influence: the [[Greco-Roman]] [[toga]]-like wavy robe covering both shoulders (more exactly, its lighter version, the Greek ''[[himation]]''), the [[contrapposto]] stance of the upright figures (see: 1st–2nd century Gandhara standing Buddhas<ref>Standing Buddhas: [http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Gandhara%20Buddha.jpg Image 1]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616041314/http://faculty.maxwell.syr.edu/gaddis/HST210/Oct21/Gandhara%20Buddha.jpg |date=2013-06-16 }}, [http://www.kimbellart.org/database/images/jpg/AP1967_01.jpg Image 2] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021055258/http://www.kimbellart.org/database/images/jpg/AP1967_01.jpg |date=2006-10-21 }}</ref>), the stylicized [[Mediterranean]] curly hair and topknot ([[ushnisha]]) apparently derived from the style of the [[Apollo Belvedere|Belvedere Apollo]] (330 BCE),<ref>The Belvedere Apollo: [http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/h/images/hellenis_apolbelve.det.lg.JPG Image] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603203546/http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/h/images/hellenis_apolbelve.det.lg.JPG |date=2014-06-03 }}</ref> and the measured quality of the faces, all rendered with strong artistic [[Realism (visual arts)|realism]] (See: [[Greek art]]). A large quantity of [[sculpture]]s combining Buddhist and purely Hellenistic styles and [[iconography]] were excavated at the [[Gandhara]]n site of [[Hadda, Afghanistan|Hadda]].

Several influential Greek Buddhist monks are recorded. [[Mahadharmaraksita]] (literally translated as 'Great Teacher/Preserver of the Dharma'), was "a Greek ("[[Yona]]") Buddhist head monk", according to the [[Mahavamsa]] (Chap. XXIX),<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Chapter XXIX – The Beginning of the Great Thupa |title=Mahavamsa |url=http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html |chapter-url=https://lakdiva.org.lk/mahavamsa/chap029.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060905050433/http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html |archive-date=2006-09-05}}</ref> who led 30,000 Buddhist monks from "the Greek city of Alasandra" ([[Alexandria of the Caucasus]], around 150&nbsp;km north of today's [[Kabul]] in [[Afghanistan]]), to Sri Lanka for the dedication of the [[Ruwanwelisaya|Great Stupa]] in [[Anuradhapura]] during the rule (165–135 BCE) of King [[Menander I]]. [[Dharmaraksita|Dhammarakkhita]] (meaning: ''Protected by the [[Dharma]]''), was one of the [[missionary|missionaries]] sent by the [[Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]] to proselytize the [[Buddhist]] faith. He is described as being a Greek ([[Pāli|Pali]]: "Yona", lit. "[[Ionia]]n") in the Sri Lankan ''[[Mahavamsa]].''

==Kushan empire and Gandharan Buddhism==
{{See also|Gandharan Buddhism}}
[[File:Map of the Kushan Empire.png|thumb|right|Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under [[Kanishka the Great]] (dotted line), which saw the height of Gandhāran Buddhist expansion.]]
The [[Kushan Empire|Kushan empire]] (30–375 CE) was formed by the invading [[Yuezhi]] nomads in the 1st century BCE. It eventually encompassed much of northern India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Kushans adopted elements of the Hellenistic culture of Bactria and the Indo-Greeks.<ref>Xinru Liu, ''The Silk Road in World History'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 42.</ref> During Kushan rule, [[Gandharan Buddhism]] was at the height of its influence and a significant number of Buddhist centers were built or renovated.{{sfn|Behrendt|2004|p=13}}

The Buddhist art of Kushan [[Gandhara]] was a synthesis of Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian elements.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Kurt Behrendt |author2=Pia Brancaccio |year=2006 |title=Gandharan Buddhism: Archaeology, Art, and Texts |page=10}}</ref> The [[Gandhāran Buddhist texts]] also date from this period. Written in [[Gāndhārī language|Gāndhārī Prakrit]], they are the oldest Buddhist manuscripts yet discovered (c. 1st century CE).{{sfn|Salomon|1999|p={{page needed|date=September 2023}}}} According to Richard Salomon, most of them belong to the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school.{{sfn|Salomon|1999|p=181}}

Emperor [[Kanishka]] (128–151 CE) is particularly known for his support of Buddhism. During his reign, stupas and monasteries were built in the Gandhāran city of [[Peshawar]] (Skt. ''Purusapura''), which he used as a capital.<ref name="Heirman, Ann p. 57">{{cite book |editor-last1=Heirman |editor-first1=Ann |editor-last2=Bumbacher |editor-first2=Stephan Peter |title=The Spread of Buddhism |publisher=Brill |page=57}}</ref> Kushan royal support and the opening of trade routes allowed Gandharan Buddhism to spread along the [[Silk Road]] to [[Central Asia]], the [[Tarim Basin]] and thus to China.<ref name="Heirman, Ann p. 57"/>

Kanishka is also said to have convened a major Buddhist council for the [[Sarvastivada]] tradition, either in [[Gandhara]] or [[Kashmir]].{{sfn|Prebish|1975|p=47}} Kanishka gathered 500 learned monks partly to compile extensive commentaries on the [[Abhidharma]], although it is possible that some editorial work was carried out upon the existing [[Sarvastivada]] canon itself. Allegedly during the council there were altogether three hundred thousand verses and over nine million statements compiled, and it took twelve years to complete. The main fruit of this council was the compilation of the vast commentary known as the [[Mahavibhasa|Mahā-Vibhāshā]] ("Great Exegesis"), an extensive compendium and reference work on a portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma.{{sfn|Prebish|1975|p=42}} Modern scholars such as [[Etienne Lamotte]] and [[David Snellgrove]] have questioned the veracity of this traditional account.{{sfn|Snellgrove|2003|p=46}}<ref>''Teaching of Vimalakirti'', Pali Text Society, p. 93</ref>

Scholars believe that it was also around this time that a significant change was made in the language of the Sarvāstivādin canon, by converting an earlier [[Prakrit]] version into [[Sanskrit]]. Although this change was probably effected without significant loss of integrity to the canon, this event was of particular significance since Sanskrit was the sacred language of [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]] in India, and was also being used by other thinkers, regardless of their specific religious or philosophical allegiance, thus enabling a far wider audience to gain access to Buddhist ideas and practices.

[[File:SectarianBuddhistschools.png|thumb|right|Map of the major geographical centers of major Buddhist schools in South Asia, at around the time of [[Xuanzang]]'s visit in the seventh century.<br>* Red: non-Pudgalavāda [[Sarvāstivāda]] school<br>* Orange: non-Dharmaguptaka [[Vibhajyavāda]] schools<br>* Yellow: [[Mahāsāṃghika]]<br>* Green: [[Pudgalavāda]] (Green)<br>* Gray: [[Dharmaguptaka]]]]

After the fall of the Kushans, small kingdoms ruled the Gandharan region, and later the [[Hephthalite|Hephthalite White Huns]] conquered the area (circa 440s–670). Under the Hephthalites, Gandharan Buddhism continued to thrive in cities like [[Balkh]] ([[Bactria]]), as remarked by [[Xuanzang]] who visited the region in the 7th century.<ref>''Buddhism in Central Asia'' by [[Baij Nath Puri]], Motilal Banarsi Dass Publishers, p. 130</ref> Xuanzang notes that there were over a hundred Buddhist monasteries in the city, including the [[Nava Vihara]] as well many stupas and monks.<ref>van Bladel, Kevin (2011). "The Bactrian Background of the Barmakids". In Anna Akasoy and Charles Burnett and Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim. ''Islam and Tibet Interactions along the Musk Routes''. Farnham, UK: Ashgate. pp. 43–88. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-6956-2}}</ref> After the end of the Hephthalite empire, Gandharan Buddhism declined in Gandhara proper (in the Peshawar basin).{{sfn|Behrendt|2004|p=10}} However it continued to thrive in adjacent areas like the [[Swat District|Swat Valley]] of Pakistan, [[Gilgit]], [[Kashmir]] and in [[Afghanistan]] (in sites such as [[Bamyan|Bamiyan]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Behrent |first=Kurt |date=April 2012 |chapter-url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gand/hd_gand.htm |chapter=Gandhara |title=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |place=New York |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |url-status=live |archive-date=2018-04-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180403234652/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gand/hd_gand.htm}}</ref>

==Spread to Central Asia==
{{Further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
[[File:ExtentOfBuddhismAndTrade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Extent of Buddhism and trade routes in the 1st century CE.]]
[[Central Asia]] was home to the international trade route known as the [[Silk Road]], which carried goods between [[China]], [[India]], the [[Middle East]] and the [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean world]]. Buddhism was present in this region from about the second century BCE.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=195}} Initially, the [[Dharmaguptaka]] school was the most successful in their efforts to spread Buddhism in Central Asia.{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=278}} The [[Kingdom of Khotan]] was one of the earliest Buddhist kingdoms in the area and helped transmit Buddhism from India to China.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9040640 "Khotan – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"]. Britannica.com.{{dead link|date=September 2023}}</ref>

The [[Kushan Empire]]'s unification of most of this area and their support of Buddhism allowed it to easily spread along the trade routes of the region throughout Central Asia.<ref name="Heirman, Ann p. 57"/> During the first century CE under the Kushans, the Sarvastivada school flourished in this region, some of the monks also bringing Mahayana teachings with them.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=195}} Buddhism would eventually reach modern-day [[Pakistan]], [[Kashmir]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]]. As Buddhism reached many of these lands, Buddhists began to translate and produce texts in the local languages, such as [[Khotanese language|Khotanese]] (a [[Iranian languages|Middle Iranian language]]), [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]] (also Iranian), [[Uyghur language|Uighur]] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]), [[Tangut language|Tangut]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], and Chinese.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Silk |first=Jonathan |title=The spread of Buddhism in Central Asia. |journal=International Institute for Asian Studies, Newsletter |issue=68 |date=2014 |url=https://iias.asia/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL68_41.pdf |access-date=2018-04-05 |archive-date=2018-01-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180121155530/https://iias.asia/sites/default/files/IIAS_NL68_41.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|upright |right|Blue-eyed [[Central Asia]]n and East-Asian Buddhist monks, [[Bezeklik]], 9th-10th centuries.]]
Central Asians played a key role in the transmission of Buddhism to China The first translators of Buddhists scriptures into Chinese were Iranians, including the [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] [[An Shigao]] (c. 148 CE), the [[Yuezhi]] [[Zhi Qian]] and Kang Sengkai (from Samarkand).<ref name=Kudara2002>{{cite journal|last1=Kudara |first1=Kogi|title=A Rough Sketch of Central Asian Buddhism |journal=Pacific World: Journal of the Institute of Buddhist Studies|date=2002|volume=3|issue=4|pages=93–107 |url=http://www.shin-ibs.edu/publications/pacific-world/third-series-number-4-fall-2002/|access-date=2018-04-05|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180406102117/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/publications/pacific-world/third-series-number-4-fall-2002/|archive-date=2018-04-06}}</ref> Thirty-seven early translators of Buddhist texts are known, and the majority of them have been identified as hailing from the Iranian cultural sphere.<ref name=Kudara2002/> The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian empire]] (226–651 CE) would eventually rule over many of these regions (such as [[Parthia]] and [[Sogdia]]), but they tolerated the Buddhist religion.<ref name=Kudara2002/>

However, during the mid-seventh century, the [[Muslim conquest of Persia|Arab conquest]] of the [[Iranian Plateau]] followed by the [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan]] and the later establishment of the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid kingdom]] in Central Asia (c. 977–1186) led to the decline and eventual disappearance of Buddhism from most of these regions.<ref name=Kudara2002/>

Buddhism also flourished in the eastern part of central Asia, like the [[Tarim Basin]]. Indians and Iranians lived in major cities of this region like [[Kashgar]] and [[Khotan]].<ref name=Kudara2002/> The region has revealed extremely rich Buddhist works of art as well as Buddhist texts such as [[Dunhuang manuscripts|those found in Dunhuang]]. [[Serindian art]] is highly reminiscent of the Gandhāran style, and scriptures in the Gandhāri script [[Kharosthi|Kharoṣṭhī]] have been found. The [[Uyghurs]] conquered the area in the 8th century and blended with the local Iranian peoples, absorbing the Buddhist culture of the region.<ref name=Kudara2002/> They were later absorbed by the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty]].

Many printed Buddhist texts from the region date to the Yuan, and they were printed in the Uyghur, Xixia and Sanskrit languages.<ref name=Kudara2002/> The Uyghurs also restored cave temples and repainted Buddhist wall paintings such as at [[Bezeklik Caves|Bezeklik]].<ref name=Kudara2002/> Uyghur Buddhism was the last major Buddhist culture in Xinjiang and it lasted until the mid 14th century.<ref name=Kudara2002/> After the [[Islamicisation of Xinjiang]], Buddhism ceased to be a major religion there.

== Gupta and Pāla eras ==
{{Further|History of Buddhism in India|Decline of Buddhism in India}}
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Nalanda Buddhist University Ruins, which flourished from 427 to 1197 CE, Nalanda, Bihar.jpg|Ruins of the Buddhist [[Nalanda|Nālandā]] complex, a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200 CE.
Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] at [[Bodh Gaya]] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE.
King Harsha pays homage to Buddha.jpg|"King [[Harsha]] pays homage to Buddha", a 20th-century artist's imagination.
VikramshilaRuins.jpg|Landscape of [[Vikramashila]] university ruins, the seating, and meditation area. It was one of the most important centers of learning, during the Pala Empire, established by Emperor [[Dharmapala (emperor)|Dharmapala]]. [[Atiśa]], the renowned [[pandita (Buddhism)|pandita]], is sometimes listed as a notable [[abbot]].{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|p=89}}
</gallery>
Buddhism continued to flourish in India during the [[Gupta Empire]] (4th–6th centuries) which brought order to much of north India. Gupta rulers such as [[Kumaragupta I]] (c. 414–455 CE) supported Buddhism. He enlarged [[Nālandā]] university, which became the largest and most influential Buddhist university in India for many centuries.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Gupta Empire |author=Radhakumud Mookerji |year=1989 |entry=Buddhism |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0089-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uYXDB2gIYbwC&pg=PA133 |page=133}}{{failed verification|date=September 2023}}</ref> Great Buddhist philosophers like [[Dignāga|Dignaga]], and [[Dharmakirti]] taught philosophy there. Nalanda remained a central place for the study of [[epistemology]] ([[pramana]]).{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=442}}

Another major Buddhist university was [[Valabhi University|Valabhi]], in western India, which was second only to Nalanda in the 5th century.{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=442}} This influential university was founded and supported by the [[Maitraka dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Apte|first=D. G. |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005633130 |title=Universities in ancient India |publisher=Faculty of Education and Psychology, Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda|year=1950|location=Raopura, Vadodara |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924005633130/page/n51 44]–47|via=Cornell University Library}}</ref> It was mainly a center of [[Śrāvakayāna|sravakayana]] Buddhism (that is, non-Mahayana), but was also a place for the study of numerous subjects including secular topics of higher education (such as medicine, logic and grammar).<ref>Bose, Manilal (1998). ''Social and Cultural History of Ancient India,'' pp. 64-65. Concept Publishing Company.</ref>

The influence of the Gupta style of [[Buddhist]] art spread along with the faith from south-east Asia to China. During this period, Chinese pilgrims also visited India to study Buddhism.

One of these pilgrims was [[Faxian]], who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor [[Chandragupta II]] in 405, and commented on the prosperity and mild administration of the Gupta empire. Another Chinese traveler who reached India after the end of the Guptas in the 7th century was [[Xuanzang]]. He reported in his travels across India that Buddhism was popular in [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20070324220145/http://www.upf.es/materials/huma/central/historia/xinamon/docums/budxidoc/miyaki.htm ''Personality of Xuanzang Sanzang'']</ref> While reporting many deserted stupas in the area around modern day [[Nepal]] and the persecution of Buddhists by [[Shashanka]] in the Kingdom of [[Gauda Kingdom|Gauda]] in modern-day West Bengal, [[Xuanzang]] complimented the patronage of emperor [[Harsha|Harṣavardana]] (c. 590–647 CE). [[Xuanzang]] also noted that in various regions [[Buddhism]] was giving way to [[Jainism]] and [[Hinduism]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiaprofile.com/religion-culture/buddhisminandhra.htm |title=Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh, story of Buddhism |access-date=2006-06-27 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2007-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314205301/http://www.indiaprofile.com/religion-culture/buddhisminandhra.htm}}</ref>

After the fall of [[Empire of Harsha|Harsha's empire]], the Gangetic plain saw the rise of many small feuding kingdoms. This was to last until the rise of the [[Pala Empire|Pāla Empire]] (8th–12th centuries) in the [[Bengal]] region. The Pālas were stanch supporters of Buddhism, and built several important Buddhist centers, such as [[Vikramashila]], [[Somapura Mahavihara|Somapura]] and [[Odantapuri]].<ref>''Vajrayogini: Her Visualization, Rituals, and Forms'' by Elizabeth English. Wisdom Publications. {{ISBN|0-86171-329-X}} p. 15</ref> They also supported older centers like Nalanda and [[Bodh Gaya]]. It was at these great Buddhist centers that scholars developed the philosophies of [[Vajrayana]], Abhidharma, Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Pramana, as well as the study of linguistics, medicine, astronomy, music, painting, and sculpture.{{sfn|Warder|2000|p=443}} Great Buddhist scholars such as [[Atisha]] and [[Santaraksita]] date from this period. Under the [[Pala Empire|Pālas]], Vajrayana Buddhism thus flourished and spread to [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Sikkim]].

A milestone in the decline of Indian Buddhism in the North occurred in 1193 when [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] Islamic raiders under [[Muhammad Khilji]] burnt [[Nalanda|Nālandā]]. By the end of the 12th century, following the Islamic conquest of the Buddhist strongholds in [[Bihar]] and [[Bengal]] by [[Delhi Sultanate]]'s [[Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji]], and the loss of political support coupled with social pressures, the practice of Buddhism retreated to the Himalayan foothills in the North and [[Sri Lanka]] in the south. Additionally, the influence of Buddhism also waned due to Hinduism's revival movements such as [[Advaita]], and the rise of the [[bhakti movement]].

===Vajrayāna===
{{Main|Vajrayana}}
[[File:Tibet, mahakala, guardiano della dottrina sotto l'aspetto gur-gyi mgon-go, 1292.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.8 |A Tantric Buddhist statue of [[Mahakala]], holding a [[Kartika (knife)|flaying knife]] (''kartika'') and [[kapala|skullcup]] (''kapala'').]]
Under the Gupta and Pala empires, a Tantric Buddhist movement arose, variously named Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna, Tantric Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism. It promoted new practices such as the use of [[mantras]], [[dharani]]s, [[mudras]], [[mandalas]] and the visualization of deities and Buddhas and developed a new class of literature, the [[Buddhist Tantras]]. The movement can be traced back to groups of wandering yogis called [[mahasiddha]]s.<ref>Ray, Reginald A.; Indestructible Truth: The Living Spirituality of Tibetan Buddhism, 2000</ref>

Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and [[Shaivism|Saivism]], especially the Buddhist Yogini tantras.{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|p=124}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Sanderson |first=Alexis |title=Vajrayana: Origin and Function |year=1994}}</ref> The [[Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa|Mañjusrimulakalpa]], which later came to classified under [[Outer Tantras#Kriyatantra|Kriyatantra]], states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by [[Manjushri]].{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|pp=129–131}} The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the [[Guhyasamāja tantra|Guhyasamaja tradition]], prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Saiva Siddhanta]] scriptures and mandalas.{{sfn|Sanderson|2009|pp=144–145}} The [[Cakrasaṃvara Tantra|Samvara tantra]] texts adopted the [[Hindu pilgrimage sites|pitha]] list from the Shaiva text ''Tantrasadbhava'', introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Huber |first1=Toni |title=The holy land reborn: pilgrimage & the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India|date=2008 |publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-226-35648-8|pages=94–95}}</ref>

===Tibetan Buddhism===
{{See also|Tibetan Buddhist History|Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan art}}
Buddhism arrived late in Tibet, during the 7th century. The form that predominated, via the south of Tibet, was a blend of ''mahāyāna'' and ''vajrayāna'' from the universities of the [[Pala Empire|Pāla empire]] of the Bengal region in eastern India.{{sfn|Conze|1993|p={{page needed|date=September 2023}}}} [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivādin]] influence came from the south west (Kashmir){{sfn|Conze|1993|p=106}} and the north west ([[Khotan]]).<ref name="Berzin, Alexander">{{cite web |last=Berzin |first=Alexander |date=2000 |url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-tibet/how-did-tibetan-buddhism-develop |title=How Did Tibetan Buddhism Develop? |access-date=2016-06-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617125627/http://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/history-culture/buddhism-in-tibet/how-did-tibetan-buddhism-develop |archive-date=2016-06-17}};<br/>{{*}}{{cite web |last=Berzin |first=Alexander |date=1996 |title=Spread of Buddhism in Asia |url=http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/about-buddhism/the-world-of-buddhism/spread-of-buddhism-in-asia |access-date=2016-06-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521071404/http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/about-buddhism/the-world-of-buddhism/spread-of-buddhism-in-asia |archive-date=2016-05-21}}</ref> Their texts found their way into the [[Tibetan Buddhist canon]], providing the Tibetans with almost all of their primary sources about the [[Hinayana|Foundation Vehicle]]. A subsect of this school, [[Mulasarvastivada|Mūlasarvāstivāda]] was the source of the Tibetan [[Vinaya]].<ref name="Berzin, Alexander"/> Chan Buddhism was introduced via east Tibet from China and left its impression, but was rendered of lesser importance by early political events.<ref>{{cite web |last=Berzin |first=Alexander |title=Study Buddhism |url=http://studybuddhism.com/ |website=Study Buddhism |access-date=2016-05-28 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529030529/http://studybuddhism.com/ |archive-date=2016-05-29 }}{{failed verification|date=July 2016}}</ref>

From the outset, Buddhism was opposed by the native shamanistic [[Bon]] religion, which had the support of the aristocracy, but with royal patronage, it thrived to a peak under King [[Ralpacan|Rälpachän]](817–836). Terminology in translation was standardised around 825, enabling a translation methodology that was highly literal. Despite a reversal in Buddhist influence which began under King [[Langdarma]] (836–842), the following centuries saw a colossal effort in collecting available Indian sources, many of which are now extant only in Tibetan translation. Tibetan Buddhism was favored above other religions by the rulers of imperial Chinese and Mongol [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1271–1368).

==East Asian Buddhism==
===China===
{{Main|Buddhism in China}}
{{See also|Tang Dynasty art|Chinese Buddhist cuisine}}
[[File:Han Dynasty map 2CE.png|thumb|Extent of the [[Han Empire]]]]
Buddhism was introduced in China during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE) and was present by around 50 CE.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=210}} Although the archaeological record confirms that Buddhism was introduced sometime during the Han dynasty, it did not flourish in China until the Six Dynasties period (220–589 CE).<ref name="Saylor">{{cite web |title=Buddhism in China: A Historical Overview |publisher=Saylor.org |url=http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |access-date=7 March 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727135546/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/ARTH406-Historical-Overview-of-Chinese-Buddhism-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2014}}</ref> The first documented Buddhist texts translated into Chinese are those of the Parthian [[An Shigao]] (148–180 CE).<ref>Zürcher, Erik. 2007 (1959). The Buddhist Conquest of China: The Spread and Adaptation of Buddhism in Early Medieval China. 3rd ed. Leiden: Brill. pp. 32–34</ref> The first known [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] scriptural texts are translations into Chinese by the Kushan monk [[Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)|Lokakṣema]] in [[Luoyang]], between 178 and 189 CE.<ref>Williams, Paul. ''Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. 2008. p. 30</ref> Early translators faced the difficulty of communicating foreign Buddhist concepts to the Chinese, and often used [[Taoism|Taoist]] terminology to explain them. This has been called "[[Geyi|concept-matching]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Oh |first=Kang-nam |date=2000 |title=The Taoist Influence on Hua-yen Buddhism: A Case of the Sinicization of Buddhism in China |journal=Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal |issue=13 |url= http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/chbj/13/chbj1338.htm |access-date=January 28, 2008 |page=286 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323000712/http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/chbj/13/chbj1338.htm |archive-date=March 23, 2010}}</ref> Later translators such as [[Kumārajīva]] (334–413 CE) improved the translation methods of Chinese Buddhism considerably.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nattier |first=Jan |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8800/2707|title=The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?|archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20160211215405/http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/ojs/index.php/jiabs/article/download/8800/2707|archive-date=2016-02-11 |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=153–223 |date=1992}}</ref>

Some of the earliest known Buddhist artifacts found in China are small statues on "money trees", dated c. 200 CE, in typical Gandhāran drawing style.{{sfn|Errington|1992|p=209}} In the period between 460 and 525 CE during the [[Northern Wei dynasty]], the Chinese-constructed [[Yungang Grottoes]], and the [[Longmen Grottoes]], which include some impressive monumental sculptures. In the fifth century, Chinese Buddhists also developed new schools and traditions, such as the [[Tiantai]] school, the [[Huayan|Huayen]] school, the [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] school and [[Chan Buddhism]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=215–217}}

Buddhism continued to grow during the early [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907). It was during this dynasty that the Chinese monk [[Xuanzang]] traveled to India, bringing back 657 Buddhist texts along with relics and statues.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=81}} He established a famed translation school in the Tang capital of [[Chang'an]] (today's [[Xi'an]]), focusing on [[Yogachara|Yogacara]] school texts. Also during the Tang, [[Chinese Esoteric Buddhism]] was introduced from India.<ref>Orzech, Charles D. (general editor) (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill. p. 4</ref> The Tang dynasty also saw the growth of [[Chan Buddhism]] (Zen), with the great Zen masters such as [[Mazu Daoyi]] and [[Linji Yixuan]].{{sfn|McRae|2003|pp=13, 18}} In the later Tang, Chinese Buddhism suffered a setback during the [[Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution]] of 845.

Buddhism recovered during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), which is known as the "golden age" of Chan.{{sfn|McRae|2003|pp=13, 19–21}} During this period Chinese Chan influenced Korean and Japanese Buddhism. [[Pure Land]] Buddhism also became popular during this period and was often practiced together with Chan.<ref>Heng-Ching Shih (1987). Yung-Ming's Syncretism of Pure Land and Chan, The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10 (1), p. 117</ref> It was also during the Song that the entire [[Chinese Buddhist canon]] was printed using over 130,000 wooden printing blocks.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=223}}

During the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Tibetan Buddhism]] became the state religion.<ref>Nan Huai-Chin. ''Basic Buddhism: Exploring Buddhism and Zen.''York Beach: Samuel Weiser. 1997. p. 99.</ref> During the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644), the Chan school became the dominant tradition in China and all monks were affiliated with Chan.<ref>Stanley Weinstein, "The Schools of Chinese Buddhism," in Kitagawa & Cummings (eds.), ''Buddhism and Asian History'' (New York: Macmillan 1987) pp. 257–265, 264.</ref> In the 17th century, Buddhism was spread to [[Taiwan]] by Chinese immigrants.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=224}}
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
2016-05-21 Luoyang Longmen Grottoes anagoria 10.JPG|Massive statues at [[Longmen Grottoes]], [[Henan]] province, [[China]].
Manjusri Debates Vimalakirti Dunhuang Mogao Caves.jpeg|Manjusri Bodhisattva debates Vimalakirti. Scene from the Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra. [[Dunhuang]], Mogao Caves, China, Tang Dynasty.
ChinaTrip2005-110.jpg|[[Giant Wild Goose Pagoda]] in [[Xi'an]], 704 CE.
</gallery>

===Vietnam===
{{Main|Buddhism in Vietnam}}
[[File:Lascar One Pillar Pagoda (4550966464).jpg|thumb |right|The [[One Pillar Pagoda]] is a historic Mahayana Buddhist temple in [[Hanoi]], the capital of Vietnam.]]
There is disagreement on when exactly Buddhism arrived in [[Vietnam]]. Buddhism may have arrived as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via India, or alternatively during the 1st or 2nd century from China.<ref>Nguyen Tai Thu. ''The History of Buddhism in Vietnam''. 2008.</ref> Whatever the case, [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] had been established by the second century CE in Vietnam. By the 9th century, both [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] and [[Vietnamese Thiền|Thien]] (Zen) were major Vietnamese Buddhist schools.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=224}} In the southern [[Champa|Kingdom of Champa]], Hinduism, Theravada, and Mahayana were all practiced until the 15th century, when an invasion from the north led to the dominance of Chinese-based forms of Buddhism. However Theravada Buddhism continues to exist in the south of Vietnam.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=224}} Vietnamese Buddhism is thus very similar to Chinese Buddhism and to some extent reflects the structure of Chinese Buddhism after the Song dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prebish |first1=Charles |last2=Tanaka |first2=Kenneth |title=The Faces of Buddhism in America |year=1998 |pages=134 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> Vietnamese Buddhism also has a symbiotic relationship with Taoism, Chinese spirituality and the native Vietnamese religion.

===Korea===
{{Main|Buddhism in Korea}}
[[File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Tripiṭaka Koreana]] in storage at [[Haeinsa]], [[South Korea]].]]
Buddhism was introduced to the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]] beginning around 372 CE.<ref>{{cite web |title=300 to 600 CE: Korea |website=Asia for Educators |publisher=Columbia University |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/tps/300ce_ko.htm#buddhism |access-date=2012-03-06|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222025814/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/tps/300ce_ko.htm#buddhism|archive-date=2012-02-22}}</ref> During the 6th century, many Korean monks traveled to China and India to study Buddhism and various Korean Buddhist schools developed. Buddhism prospered in Korea during the [[North–South States Period]] (688–926) when it became a dominant force in society.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=224}} Buddhism continued to be popular in the [[Goryeo]] period (918–1392), in particular Seon ([[Zen]]) Buddhism.<ref>Vermeersch, Sem. (2008). ''The Power of the Buddhas: the Politics of Buddhism during the Koryŏ Dynasty (918–1392),'' p. 3.</ref> However, during the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] Yi dynasty of the [[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon period]], Buddhism faced a reversal of fortunes beginning with the confiscation of monastery lands, the closing of monasteries and the ban on ordination by aristocrats in the 15th century.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=225}}

===Japan===
{{Main|Buddhism in Japan}}
[[File:Kamakura Budda Daibutsu front 1885.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Daibutsu]] (Great Buddha), [[Kamakura]].]]
Buddhism was introduced to Japan in the 6th century by Korean monks bearing sutras and an image of the Buddha.<ref>Dykstra, Yoshiko Kurata; De Bary, William Theodore (2001). ''Sources of Japanese tradition''. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 100. {{ISBN|0-231-12138-5}}.</ref> During the [[Nara period|Nara Period]] (710–794), emperor [[Emperor Shōmu|Shōmu]] ordered the building of temples throughout his realm.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=226}} Numerous temples and monasteries were built in the capital city of [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], such as the five-story [[pagoda]] and Golden Hall of the [[Hōryū-ji]], or the [[Kōfuku-ji]] temple. There was also a proliferation of Buddhist sects in the capital city of [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], known as the ''Nanto Rokushū'' (''the Six Nara Sects'').<ref>Powers, John (2000). "Japanese Buddhism". ''A Concise Encyclopedia of Buddhism''. '''1'''. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 103–107.</ref> The most influential of these being the [[Kegon]] school (from the Chinese [[Huayan]]).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=226}}

During the late Nara, the key figures of [[Kūkai]] (774–835) and [[Saichō]] (767–822) founded the influential Japanese schools of [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] and [[Tendai]], respectively.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=227}} An important doctrine for these schools was ''[[hongaku]]'' (innate awakening or original enlightenment), a doctrine which was influential for all subsequent Japanese Buddhism.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=228}} Buddhism also influenced the Japanese religion of [[Shinto]], which incorporated Buddhist elements.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=228}}

During the later [[Kamakura period]] (1185–1333), there were six new Buddhist schools founded which competed with the older Nara schools and are known as "New Buddhism" (''Shin Bukkyō'') or ''Kamakura Buddhism.'' They include the influential [[Pure Land Buddhism|Pure Land]] schools of [[Hōnen]] (1133–1212) and [[Shinran]] (1173–1263), the [[Rinzai school|Rinzai]] and [[Sōtō|Soto]] schools of Zen founded by [[Eisai]] (1141–1215) and [[Dōgen]] (1200–1253) as well as the [[Nichiren Buddhism|Lotus Sutra school]] of [[Nichiren]] (1222–1282).<ref>Dobbins, James C. (1998). "Envisioning Kamakura Buddhism". In Payne, Richard K. [https://books.google.com/books?id=w5nJT5NYvn4C&dq=dobbins+kamakura&pg=PA24 ''Re-visioning Kamakura Buddhism'']. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-2078-9}}.</ref>

[[Buddhist art in Japan|Japanese Buddhist art]] was especially productive between the 8th and 13th centuries during [[Nara period]] (710–794), [[Heian period]] (794–1185) and [[Kamakura period]] (1185–1333). Buddhism, especially Zen, remained culturally influential during the [[Ashikaga period]] (1333–1573) and the [[Edo period|Tokugawa era]] (1603–1867).

===Mongolia===
{{Main|Buddhism in Mongolia}}

The rulers of the nomadic empires such as the [[Xiongnu]] (209 BCE – 93 CE), [[Xianbei]] (93-234), [[Rouran Khaganate]] (late 4th c. - middle 6th c.) and the [[Göktürks]] (middle first mill. AD) received missionaries and built temples for them. Buddhism prevailed among aristocrats and was patronised by the monarchs of the [[Xianbei]]-led [[Northern Wei|Northern Wei dynasty]] (386–535) and of the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-led [[Liao dynasty]] (916–1125). The Khitans aristocracy regarded Buddhism as the culture of the [[Uyghur Khaganate]] that dominated the Mongolian steppes before the rise of the Liao dynasty. The monarchs of the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-led [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] (1115–1234) also regarded Buddhism as part of their culture.

[[Genghis Khan]] (c. 1162 - 1227) and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and [[European Russia]] and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. The emperors of the [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368) in the 13th and 14th century converted to [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The founder of the [[Yuan dynasty]], [[Kublai Khan]], invited [[lama]] [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa]] of the [[Sakya (Tibetan Buddhist school)|Sakya]] school of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] to spread Buddhism throughout his realm (the second introduction of Buddhism among the Mongols). Buddhism became the ''de facto'' [[state religion]] of the Yuan dynasty. In 1269, Kublai Khan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual empire. The [['Phags-pa script]], also known as the "Square script", was based on the [[Tibetan script]] and written vertically from top was designed to write in [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Uighur language|Uighur]] and [[Sanskrit]] languages and served as the official script of the empire. The activities of the Mongols were conducive to the prominency of the Sakya school and then the Gelug, and to the further development of Tibeto-Mongolian culture.<ref>[http://www.savetibet.ru/2010/03/10/tibet_book.html Кузьмин С.Л. 2010. Скрытый Тибет. История независимости и оккупации. С.Петербург: изд. А. Терентьева]</ref>

The [[Mongols]] returned to [[Shamanism|shamanic]] traditions after the collapse of the [[Yuan dynasty]] in 1368 and during the Northern Yuan dynasty.

In 1578 [[Altan Khan]], a Mongol military leader with ambitions to unite the Mongols and to emulate the career of [[Genghis Khan]], invited the [[3rd Dalai Lama]], the head of the rising Gelug lineage to a summit. They formed an alliance that gave Altan Khan legitimacy and religious sanction for his imperial pretensions and that provided the Buddhist school with protection and patronage. Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso lama as a reincarnation of [[Drogön Chögyal Phagpa|Phagpa]] lama, gave the Tibetan leader the title of [[Dalai Lama]] ("Ocean [[Lama]]"), which his successors still hold. Sonam Gyatso, in turn, recognized Altan as a reincarnation of Kublai Khan.<ref>Lobzangdanzan, Altan Tobchi.{{full citation needed|date=September 2023}}</ref> Thus, Altan added legitimacy to the title "khan" that he had assumed, while Sonam Gyatso received support for the supremacy he sought over the Tibetan sangha. Since this meeting, the heads of the Gelugpa school became known as [[Dalai Lama]]s. Altan Khan also bestowed the title Ochirdara (Очирдар, from Sanskr. Vajradhara) to Sonam Gyatso.

Altan Khan died soon after, but in the next century Gelug Buddhism spread throughout Mongolia.

==Southeast Asian Buddhism==
{{Further|Greater India}}
Since around 500 BCE, the culture of India has exerted influence on [[Southeast Asia]]n countries. Land and maritime trade routes linked India with the region and both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs became influential there during the period of the [[Indianization of Southeast Asia]].<ref>Kenneth R. Hal (1985). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ncqGAAAAIAAJ&q=funan+mountain+kings ''Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast Asia'']. University of Hawaii Press. p. 63. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-0843-3}}.</ref> For more than a thousand years, Indian influence was, therefore, the major factor that brought a certain level of cultural unity to the various countries of the region. The [[Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] languages and Indian scripts, together with Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism, [[Vedic Brahmanism|Brahmanism]], and [[Hinduism]], were transmitted from direct contact and through sacred texts and Indian literature such as the [[Ramayana|Rāmāyaṇa]] and the [[Mahabharata|Mahābhārata]].<ref>{{cite web |author=Elizabeth Fuller Collins |date=28 May 2013 |url=http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml |access-date=2018-04-04 |title=Hinduism in Southeast Asia |website=Oxford Bibliographies |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221234559/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0112.xml |archive-date=2016-12-21 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780195399318-0112}}</ref>

From the 5th to the 13th centuries, South-East Asia saw a series of powerful states which were extremely active in the promotion of Buddhism and Buddhist art alongside Hinduism. The main Buddhist influence now came directly by sea from the Indian subcontinent, so that these empires essentially followed the Mahāyāna faith. Examples include mainland kingdoms like [[Funan]], the [[Khmer Empire]] and the Thai [[Sukhothai Kingdom|kingdom of Sukhothai]] as well as Island kingdoms like the [[Kalingga Kingdom]], the [[Sri Vijaya|Srivijaya]] Empire, [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]] and [[Majapahit]].

Buddhist monks traveled to China from the kingdom of [[Funan]] in the 5th century CE, bringing Mahayana texts, a sign that the religion was already established in the region by this point.<ref>''T'oung Pao: International Journal of Chinese Studies.'' 1958. p. 185</ref> Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism were the main religions of the [[Khmer Empire]] (802–1431), a state that dominated most of the South-East Asian peninsula during its time. Under the Khmer, numerous temples, both Hindu and Buddhist, were built in Cambodia and in neighboring Thailand. One of the greatest Khmer kings, [[Jayavarman VII]] (1181–1219), built large Mahāyāna Buddhist structures at [[Bayon]] and [[Angkor Thom]].<ref>Higham, C. (2014). ''Early Mainland Southeast Asia''. Bangkok: River Books Co., Ltd., {{ISBN|978-616-7339-44-3}}.</ref>

In the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java]], Indianized kingdoms like the [[Kalingga Kingdom]] (6–7th centuries) were destinations for Chinese monks seeking out Buddhist texts.<ref>Drs. R. Soekmono, (1988) [First published in 1973]. Pengantar Sejarah Kebudayaan Indonesia 2'', 2nd ed''. Yogyakarta: Penerbit Kanisius. p. 37.</ref> The Malay [[Srivijaya]] (650–1377), a maritime empire centered on the island of [[Sumatra]], adopted Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna Buddhism and spread Buddhism to Java, Malaya and other regions they conquered.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=72}}

The Chinese Buddhist [[Yijing]] described their capital at [[Palembang]] as a great center of Buddhist learning where the emperor supported over a thousand monks at his court.<ref>W., T. (1897). "Review of A Record of the Buddhist Religion, as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (A.D. 671–695), I-Tsing". ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'': 358–364. {{JSTOR|25207848}}</ref> [[Yijing]] also testified to the importance of Buddhism as early as the year 671 and advised future Chinese pilgrims to spend a year or two in [[Palembang]].{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=72}} [[Atisha|Atiśa]] studied there before travelling to [[Tibet]] as a missionary. As Srivijaya expanded, Buddhism thrived and also became part of a local [[syncretism]] that incorporated several different religions such as Hinduism and other indigenous traditions.{{sfn|Bentley|1993|p=73}}

In the island of Java, another kingdom also promoted Mahayana Buddhist culture, the [[Mataram Kingdom]] (732–1006), a major rival of Srivijaya. They are known for their monumental [[Candi of Indonesia|temple construction]], especially the massive [[Borobudur]], as well as [[Kalasan]], [[Sewu]], and [[Prambanan]].<ref>Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). ''Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula''. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet. {{ISBN|981-4155-67-5}}.</ref> [[Buddhism in Indonesia|Indonesian Buddhism]], alongside Hinduism, continued to thrive under the [[Majapahit]] Empire (1293–1527), but was [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|completely replaced by Islam afterward]].

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
An artists representation of Angkor Thom Cambodia at musée Guimet.jpg|Reconstruction of the Prasat [[Bayon]] Temple, at the center of [[Angkor Thom]].
COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Temperaschilderij voorstellende de Borobudur als bedevaartsoord TMnr 75-2.jpg|A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916–1919) reconstructing the scene of [[Borobudur]], during its heyday.
Templo Wat Arun, Bangkok, Tailandia, 2013-08-22, DD 37.jpg|Buddhist temple of [[Wat Arun]] in Bangkok, Thailand.
Ayutthaya Thailand 2004.jpg|[[Wat Chaiwatthanaram]], one of the [[Ayutthaya Kingdom]]'s best-known temples, Thailand.
</gallery>

===Theravāda Renaissance===
{{Further|Theravada}}
The lands of the [[Mon people|Mon]] and [[Pyu]] peoples in Myanmar show extensive evidence of Theravada presence in the [[Irrawaddy River|Irrawaddy]] and [[Chao Phraya]] basins from the 5th century CE onwards.<ref name="Skilling">{{cite journal |last=Skilling |first=Peter |date=Summer 1997 |title=The Advent of Theravada Buddhism to Mainland South-east Asia |journal=Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=93–107 |url=https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/jiabs/article/viewFile/8854/2761}}</ref> Theravada Buddhism in Burma initially coexisted with other forms of Buddhism and other religions.<ref name="Skilling"/> After the decline of Buddhism in the Indian mainland, Theravada Buddhist monks from Sri Lanka mounted missionary efforts in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, and they were successful in converting all these regions to [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]].<ref>Gombrich, Richard Francis. ''Theravāda Buddhism: A Social History''. 1988. p. 3</ref>

King [[Anawrahta]] (1044–1078); the founder of the [[Pagan Empire]], adopted the Theravādin Buddhist faith from Sri Lanka, building numerous Buddhist temples at his capital of [[Bagan|Pagan]].<ref>Lieberman, Victor B (2003). ''Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, C. 800–1830, Volume 1: Integration on the Mainland''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115–116. {{ISBN|978-0-521-80496-7}}.</ref> Invasions from the Burmese and the Mongols weakened Theravada in this region and it had to be reintroduced from Sri Lanka. During the Mon [[Hanthawaddy Kingdom]] (1287–1552), Theravada Buddhism was the dominant religion in Burma, with strong ties to Sri Lankan Buddhism.<ref>Myint-U, Thant (2006). The River of Lost Footsteps – Histories of Burma. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. {{ISBN|978-0-374-16342-6}}. pp. 64–65</ref> One of their kings, [[Dhammazedi]], is particularly known for his reformation of [[Burmese Buddhism]] from the Sri Lankan [[Mahavihara|Mahavihara tradition]] between 1476 and 1479.<ref>Taw, Sein Ko (1892). [http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/Kalyani_Inscriptions.pdf The Kalyani Inscriptions Erected by King Dhammaceti at Pegu: Text and Translation (PDF)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022105759/http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/Kalyani_Inscriptions.pdf |date=2012-10-22 }}. Rangoon: The Superintendent, Government Printing, Burma. iv–v</ref> Theravada remained the official religion of the subsequent Burmese [[Taungoo Dynasty]] (1510–1752).

During the reign of the [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] King [[Jayavarman VII]] (r. c. 1181–1218), Theravada Buddhism was promoted by the royal family and Sri Lankan monks, including his son Tamalinda who himself had traveled to Sri Lanka. During the 13th and 14th centuries, Theravada became the dominant religion of [[Cambodia]], and monasteries replaced the local priestly classes.<ref>Gyallay-Pap, Peter. "Notes of the Rebirth of Khmer Buddhism," Radical Conservativism.</ref> The Theravāda faith was also adopted by the [[Thailand|Thai]] kingdom of [[Sukhothai kingdom|Sukhothai]] as the state religion during the reign of [[Ram Khamhaeng]] (1237/1247–1298).<ref>[[George Cœdès|Cœdès, George]] (1968). Walter F. Vella, ed. ''The Indianized States of Southeast Asia''. trans. Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8248-0368-1}}.</ref> Theravāda Buddhism was further reinforced during the [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] period (14th–18th century), becoming an integral part of Thai society.

==Modern period==
{{Further|Buddhist modernism}}

The [[Modern history|modern era]] brought new challenges to the Buddhist religion such as the [[Western imperialism in Asia|colonization of traditionally Buddhist Asian countries by Western states]], which weakened the traditional political structures which supported the religion, as well as criticism and competition from [[Christianity]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=376}} Modern wars, [[Marxist–Leninist atheism|communist anti-religious pressure]], the growth of [[capitalism]], modern science and regional political instability are also influential pressures on modern Buddhism.

=== South and Southeast Asia ===
<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
Olcott and Buddhists.jpg|Henry Olcott and Buddhists (Colombo, 1883).
Deekshabhoomi - panoramio.jpg|[[Deekshabhoomi]] monument, located in [[Nagpur]], [[Maharashtra]] where [[B. R. Ambedkar]] converted to Buddhism in 1956 is the largest [[stupa]] in Asia.<ref>{{cite news|last=Bhagwat|first=Ramu |title=Ambedkar memorial set up at Deekshabhoomi |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-12-19/mumbai/27228796_1_dr-ambedkar-narayanan-smarak-samiti |access-date=1 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016083900/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2001-12-19/mumbai/27228796_1_dr-ambedkar-narayanan-smarak-samiti |url-status=dead|archive-date=16 October 2013|newspaper=[[The Times of India]]|date=19 December 2001}}</ref>
</gallery>
In [[British Ceylon]], [[Christian mission]]aries ran all the state-approved schools and commonly criticized Buddhist beliefs.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=377}} By 1865, Buddhist monks began a counter movement against Christian attacks, printing pamphlets and debating Christians in public, such as at the famous Panadura debate in 1873, which saw the monk [[Migettuwatte Gunananda Thera|Gunananda]] win a debate in front of a crowd of 10,000.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=378}}

During this period a new form of Buddhism began to take shape, termed [[Buddhist modernism]] (or sometimes "Protestant Buddhism"), which tended to see the Buddha from a humanist point of view and claimed that Buddhism was a rational and scientific religion.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=378}} Important figures in this new movement include the American convert [[Henry Steel Olcott|Henry Olcott]] (1832–1907) and [[Anagarika Dharmapala]]  (1864–1933), who promoted Buddhist schools, lay organizations and the printing of newspapers.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=378}} Dharmapala also founded the [[Maha Bodhi Society|Mahā Bodhi Society]] to restore the dilapidated Indian site of Bodh Gaya.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=379}} Dharmapala also traveled to the UK and the US to teach Buddhism.

This society helped usher in a [[History of Buddhism in India#Revival of Buddhism in India|revival of Buddhism in India]], where Buddhism became popular among some Indian intellectuals.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=398}} One of these was the lawyer [[B. R. Ambedkar]] (1891–1956), leader of the [[Dalit Buddhist movement]], who urged low caste Indian [[Dalit]]s to convert to Buddhism. Other Indian figures include [[Rahul Sankrityayan]] (1893–1963), [[Dharmananda Damodar Kosambi|Dharmanand Kosambi]] (1876–1941) and [[Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan]].<ref>Jerryson, Michael K. (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism, p. 42, 50</ref>

In [[Myanmar|Burma]], a central modern figure is [[King Mindon]] (r. 1853–1878), who convened the [[Fifth Buddhist council|5th Buddhist council]] (1868–71), where different editions of the [[Pāli Canon|Pali Canon]] were cross-checked and a final version was inscribed on [[Tripiṭaka tablets at Kuthodaw Pagoda|729 stone slabs, currently still the world's largest book]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=394}} A new meditation movement arose in Burma, called the [[Vipassana movement]], beginning with figures such as [[Medawi]] (1728–1816), who was instrumental in the promotion of Buddhist meditation practices.<ref>Pranke, Patrick. On saints and wizards, Ideals of human perfection and power in contemporary Burmese Buddhism</ref> In 1956, Burmese politician [[U Nu]] presided over a [[Sixth Buddhist council|sixth council]], which saw monks from various Theravada countries produce another new edition of the [[Pāli Canon|Pali Canon]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=395}} Recently, Buddhist monks have become involved in political protest movements such as the [[Saffron Revolution]] of 2007.

Thailand, which was the only country to avoid colonization, had two important Buddhist kings, who pushed for modernization and reformation of the Buddhist sangha. They were [[Mongkut|King Mongkut]] (r. 1851–68), and his son [[Chulalongkorn|King Chulalongkorn]] (r. 1868–1910), who were responsible for several key modern reforms of [[Buddhism in Thailand|Thai Buddhism]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=385}} Two recent Thai modernist movements are the monastic revival of the [[Thai Forest Tradition|Thai forest tradition]] and the [[Wat Phra Dhammakaya|Wat Phra Dhammakāya]] movement.

From 1893, [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]] were all French colonies. The Communists came to power in Laos in 1975. There was n widespread repression of the Buddhist sangha, but the communist government has sought to control the Sangha and use it as a tool to spread its ideology.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=397}} In Cambodia however, the communist terror of the [[Khmer Rouge]] during 1975–79 caused much damage to the Buddhist sangha.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=397}}

=== East Asia ===
The [[Perry Expedition|opening of Japan in 1853]] by [[Matthew Calbraith Perry|Admiral Perry]] and the [[Meiji Restoration]] of 1868 led to the end of feudal Japan and rapid modernization.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=403}} A new form of [[State Shinto]] arose as a strong competitor to Buddhism when it was adopted by the Japanese government. In 1872, the Japanese government decreed that Buddhist clerics could marry. These changes led to modernization efforts by [[Buddhism in Japan|Japanese Buddhism]] which saw the setting up of publishing houses and the study of Western philosophy and scholarship.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=403}} In the post-war period, [[Japanese new religions]] arose, many of them influenced by Buddhism.

Chinese Buddhism meanwhile, suffered much destruction during the Christian-inspired [[Taiping Rebellion|Taiping rebellion]] (1850–64), but saw a modest revival during the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republican period]] (1912–49).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=409}} A key figure was [[Taixu]] (T’ai-hsü, 1899–1947), who is associated with the modernist [[Humanistic Buddhism]] trend of Chinese Buddhism. The Communist [[Cultural Revolution]] (1966–76) led to the closing of all Buddhist monasteries and widespread destruction of Buddhist institutions. However, since 1977, there has been a general shift in the policy of the communist government, and Buddhist activity, both monastic and lay, has once again been renewed.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=409–410}}

[[Korean Buddhism]] suffered a series of setbacks during the [[Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)|Japanese invasions]], occupation, and also during the [[Korean War|Korean war]]. [[North Korea]]'s harsh government nevertheless offers some limited support to the sangha, but it closely controls all activity. In [[South Korea]], Buddhism underwent a revival, with youth groups being influential and temples being rebuilt with government aid.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=412}}<ref>Clark, Donald N. (2000). ''Culture and customs of Korea''. Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|978-0-313-30456-9}}.</ref> An example of a recent modern form of Korean Buddhism is [[Won Buddhism]].

=== Central Asia ===
[[File:President Barack Obama greets His Holiness the Dalai Lama (27591124962).jpg|thumb|right|The Dalai Lama meeting with U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] in 2016.]]
[[Tibet (1912–1951)|Tibet]] (which had been a client state of the Qing dynasty) remained a traditional theocratic state (the [[Ganden Phodrang]] polity) with the [[Dalai Lama]]s as heads of state, from 1912 until the Chinese [[Battle of Chamdo|communist invasion in 1950]]. The [[14th Dalai Lama]] fled the country in 1959.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=414}} A [[Tibetan diaspora|Tibetan exile community]] was established in India, with its center at [[Dharamshala|Dharamsala]], which today contains various Buddhist monasteries and is a center for the study of Tibetan Buddhism. The 14th Dalai Lama has become one of the most popular Buddhist leaders in the world today.

During the [[Red Guards|Red Guard period]] (1966–67), Chinese communists destroyed around 6,000 monasteries in Tibet along with their art and books, an attempt to wipe out the Tibetan Buddhist culture.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=414}} After 1980, Chinese repression of Tibetan Buddhism has decreased and the situation has improved with the reprinting of the [[Tibetan Buddhist canon|Tibetan Canon]] and some artistic restoration.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=414}} In the nearby countries of [[Bhutan]], and [[Nepal]], [[Tibetan Buddhism|Vajrayana Buddhism]] continues to flourish as a major religion.

In [[Mongolia]], which also has Tibetan Buddhism as its main religion, [[Mongolian People's Republic|communist rule (between 1924 and 1990)]] saw much repression of Buddhism. However, Buddhism is now undergoing a revival in post-communist Mongolia, with more ordained monks and nuns, and with 284 monasteries since 2009.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=417}} More recent liberal attitudes towards religion has also benefited the Buddhists of [[Tuva]] and [[Buryatia]], as well as the Chinese region of [[Inner Mongolia]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=417}}

Another modern development was the founding of the [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyk Khanate]] in the 17th century with [[Tibetan Buddhism]] as its main religion. During the course of the 18th century, they were absorbed by the [[Russian Empire]] as [[Kalmykia]], which remains a federal subject of Russia with a majority Buddhist religion.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060202154501/http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/etnisk_b.exe?Kalmykian ''NUPI – Centre for Russian Studies'']</ref>

=== Western world ===
{{Further|Western Buddhism}}
[[File:Lightmatter Hsi Lai Temple 4.jpg|thumb|right|Main Hall of [[Hsi Lai Temple|Hsi Lai]], a Chinese-American temple in [[Los Angeles County, California]]. Completed in 1988, it is one of the largest Buddhist temples in the [[Western Hemisphere]].]]
[[File:Das.Buddhistische.Haus3.JPG|thumb|[[Das Buddhistische Haus]], a Theravada Buddhist vihara in [[Berlin]], Germany. It is considered the oldest Theravada Buddhist center in Europe.<ref>{{cite news |title=80th anniversary of Das Buddhistische Haus in Berlin – Frohnau, Germany |work=Daily News |location=Sri Lanka |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/04/24/fea09.html |date=April 24, 2004}}</ref>]]
During the 19th century, Western intellectuals became more aware of Buddhism through various contacts such as colonial servants, administrators, and Christian missionaries. Sir Edwin Arnold's book-length poem ''[[The Light of Asia]]'' (1879), a life of the Buddha, was a successful early publication on Buddhism that led to much interest among English speaking middle classes.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=420}} The work of western [[Buddhist studies|Buddhist scholars]] like [[Hermann Oldenberg]] (1854–1920), [[Thomas Rhys Davids|T. W. Rhys Davids]] (1843–1922) and [[Max Müller|F. Max Müller]] was also influential in introducing Buddhism to western audiences.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=422}}

The late 19th century also saw the first-known modern western conversions to Buddhism, including leading Theosophists [[Henry Steel Olcott]] and [[Helena Blavatsky]] in 1880 in Sri Lanka. The Theosophical Society was very influential in popularizing Indian religions in the west.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=421}} The 19th century also saw the first western monastics such as [[U Dhammaloka]], [[Charles Henry Allan Bennett|Ananda Metteyya]] and the German [[Nyanatiloka|Nyānatiloka Thera]] (1878–1956).

Another important element leading to the growth of Buddhism in the west was the large scale immigration of Chinese and Japanese to the United States and Canada in the late 19th century.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=424}} Refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia have also immigrated to west, beginning in 1975.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=426}} Asian Buddhists such as [[D. T. Suzuki|DT Suzuki]], [[Hsuan Hua|Hsüan Hua]], [[Hakuun Yasutani]] and [[Thích Nhất Hạnh]] were influential in teaching [[Zen|Zen Buddhism]] in the West in the 20th century. [[Shunryū Suzuki|Shunryu Suzuki]] opened the [[Sōtō|Soto]] [[San Francisco Zen Center]] (1961) and the [[Tassajara Zen Mountain Center|Tassajara Monastery]] (1967).{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=432}}

The [[Tibetan diaspora]] has also been active in promoting Tibetan Buddhism in the West. All of the four major Tibetan Buddhist schools have a presence in the West and have attracted Western converts.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=437}} The number of its adherents is estimated to be between ten and twenty million.<ref>{{cite web |title=Major Branches of Religions Ranked by Number of Adherents |quote=Lamaism (Vajrayana/Tibetan/Tantric) — 20,000,000 |url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Buddhism |url-status=dead |website=Adherents.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803172321/http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Buddhism |archive-date=2017-08-03}}</ref>

The Theravada tradition has established various temples in the West, especially among immigrant communities in the US. Theravada [[Vipassanā|vipassana]] meditation was also established in the West, through the founding of institutions like the [[Insight Meditation Society]] in 1975 and the vipassana centers of [[S. N. Goenka]].<ref>{{cite book |contributor-link=Gil Fronsdal |contributor-last=Fronsdal |contributor-first=Gil |contribution-url=http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/articles/InsightinUS.pdf |contribution=Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness |first1=C.S. |last1=Prebish |first2=K.K. |last2=Tanaka |year=1998 |title=The Faces of Buddhism in America |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327142556/http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/articles/InsightinUS.pdf |archive-date=2014-03-27 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref> The [[Thai Forest Tradition|Thai forest tradition]] has also established communities in the US and in the UK. In the UK, the [[Triratna Buddhist Community]] arose as a new modern Buddhist movement.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=449}}

In [[Buddhism in Europe|Continental Europe]], interest in Buddhism also increased during the late 20th century, with an exponential increase in [[Buddhism in Germany|Buddhist groups in countries like Germany]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=451}} In [[Buddhism in France|France]] and Spain, Tibetan Buddhism has the largest following.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|pp=454, 456}} Tibetan, East Asian and Theravada traditions are now also present and active in [[Buddhism in Australia|Australia]] and [[Buddhism in New Zealand|New Zealand]].{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=456}} Tibetan and Zen Buddhism also have established a small presence in [[Buddhism in Argentina|Argentina]], [[Buddhism in Brazil|Brazil]], Chile, Colombia and Venezuela.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=457}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Religion}}
* [[Greater India]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Yoga]]
* [[Indian religions]]
* [[Indosphere]]
* [[Index of Buddhism-related articles]]
* [[Religion in India]]
* [[Timeline of Buddhism]]
* [[Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Ordination of women in Buddhism]]
* [[Secular Buddhism]]
* [[Silk Road transmission of Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhist Kingdoms and Empires]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

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{{refend}}

{{Commons category|History of Buddhism}}

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{History of religions|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Buddhism}}
[[Category:History of Buddhism| ]]
[[Category:History of religion by religion]]
මෙම පිටුවෙහි භාවිත සැකිලි:
Draft:බුද්ධාගමේ ඉතිහාසය වෙත නැවත යන්න.
"https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft:බුද්ධාගමේ_ඉතිහාසය" වෙතින් සම්ප්‍රවේශනය කෙරිණි