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{{Infobox archaeological culture
| name         =Early Dynastic IIIb period
| map          =File:Sumer Akkad.png
| mapcaption   =A map detailing the locations of various archaeological sites occupied by the archaeological culture of EDIIIb.
| region       =Near East
| period       =Early Dynastic
| dates        ={{circa|2500/2450|2350/2334}} BCE
| majorsites   =
*[[Abu Salabikh]]
*[[Tell al-'Ubaid]]
*[[Girsu]]
*[[Lagash]]
*[[Nippur]]
*[[Eshnunna]]
*[[Tell Agrab]]
*[[Ur]]
*[[Uruk]]
| precededby   =Early Dynastic IIIa
| followedby   =[[Akkadian Period]]
| definedby    =[[Henri Frankfort]]
}}
The '''Early Dynastic IIIb period''' (abbreviated '''EDIIIb period''' or '''EDIIIb''') is the fourth out of four sub-periods to an [[archaeological culture]] of [[Mesopotamia]] collectively referred to as the [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] (ED). Depending on which [[Chronology of the Ancient Near East|chronology]] for the [[Ancient Near East]] (ANE) is preferred among the present-day general consensus of mainstream historians, the Early Dynastic IIIb is usually said to have succeeded Early Dynastic IIIa {{circa|2500/2450}} BCE by the [[Middle Chronology]] (MC), or {{circa|2375}} BCE by the [[Short Chronology]] (SC); then, gradually transitioning into the [[Akkadian Period]] {{circa|2350/2334}} BCE (MC), or even up to {{circa|2270/2230}} BCE (SC).

EDIIIb saw an expansion in the use of writing and increasing social inequality. Larger political entities developed in [[Lower Mesopotamia|Lower]] and [[Upper Mesopotamia|Upper]] Mesopotamia; as well as, [[Southern Iran|Southern]] and [[Western Iran|Western]] Iran. The [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]] dates back to EDIIIb. The EDIIIb is especially well-known through the [[Ebla tablets]] and [[Barton Cylinder]].

The end of EDIIIb is not defined archaeologically but politically. The [[conquests of Sargon of Akkad]] and his successors upset the political equilibrium throughout Iraq, Syria, and Iran. The transition is much harder to pinpoint within an archaeological context. It is virtually impossible to date a particular site as being that of either EDIIIb or Akkadian using ceramic or architectural evidence alone.
==Population==
{{see|Historical urban community sizes|List of largest cities throughout history|Estimates of historical world population}}
[[Tertius Chandler]] calculated a range of anywhere from 75 to 200 people inhabiting {{convert|1|ha|sqft|abbr=off}} for the [[population density]] of [[Historical urban community sizes#Bronze Age|early settlements]]. [[Fekri Hassan]] used a population density standard of 100 inhabitants per hectare. [[Robert McCormick Adams Jr.]] estimated an average of 100, 125, or 200 inhabitants/hectare. [[Colin Renfrew]] also estimated 200 inhabitants/ha. Hans Jörg Nissen concurred with the density standard of 100—200 inhabitants/ha.

[[Colin McEvedy]] wrote that a population density of about 250 inhabitants/ha is a reasonable assumption. [[Yigael Yadin]] suggested a high estimate of nearly 600 inhabitants/ha. [[Paul Bairoch]] reports that many scholars have used population densities of up to 400 or even 700 per hectare.

[[Giovanni Pettinato]] estimated that [[Ebla]] occupied 56 hectares.

[[Henri Frankfort]] estimated that Mesopotamian [[city-states]] of the ED were inhabited by anywhere from 10,000—20,000 people. He offered population estimates for the following: [[Lagash]] (19,000 inhabitants); [[Umma]] (16,000); [[Eshnunna]] (9,000), and [[Tutub]] (12,000). [[Robert John Braidwood]] estimated the population of Sumer ({{circa|2500 BCE}}) at 500,000. Ruth Whitehouse estimated that there were probably never more than twenty city-states and named thirteen that would have had populations of anywhere from 10,000—20,000: [[Eridu]], [[Bad-tibira]], [[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]], [[Sippar]], [[Shuruppak]], [[Ur]], Lagash, [[Larsa]], Umma, [[Adab (city)|Adab]], [[Nippur]], [[Akshak]], and [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]].
===Estimated settlement sizes (in hectares)===
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="16%"|Settlement
!width="16%"|Nissen
!width="16%"|[[Giovanni Pettinato|Pettinato]]
!width="16%"|[[Max Mallowan|Mallowan]]
!width="16%"|[[Robert McCormick Adams Jr.|Adams]]
!width="16%"|[[Georges Roux|Roux]]
|-
|[[Eridu]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Bad-tibira]]
|
|
|
|25
|50—500
|-
|[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Sippar]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Shuruppak]]
|
|
|
|
|100
|-
|[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]
|
|
|
|84+
|50—500
|-
|[[Uruk]]
|250
|
|
|400
|50—500
|-
|[[Ur]]
|
|
|
|50
|50—500
|-
|[[Nippur]]
|
|
|
|50
|50—500
|-
|[[Girsu]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Lagash]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Umma]]
|
|
|
|400
|50—500
|-
|[[Kesh (Sumer)|Kesh]]
|
|
|
|40—200
|50—500
|-
|[[Adab (city)|Adab]]
|
|
|
|40—200
|50—500
|-
|[[Isin]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Larsa]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Zabala (Sumer)|Zabala]]
|
|
|
|40—200
|50—500
|-
|[[Akshak]]
|
|
|
|
|50—500
|-
|[[Shekhna]]
|
|
|100
|
|
|-
|[[Tell Brak|Nagar]]
|
|
|75—100
|
|
|-
|[[Ebla]]
|
|56
|
|
|
|-
|[[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]]
|
|
|
|
|
|}

===Estimated settlement populations===
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="12.5%"|Settlement
!width="12.5%"|[[Giovanni Pettinato|Pettinato]]
!width="12.5%"|[[Tertius Chandler|Chandler]]
!width="12.5%"|Whitehouse
!width="12.5%"|[[Henri Frankfort|Frankfort]]
!width="12.5%"|[[Colin McEvedy|McEvedy]]
!width="12.5%"|Thompson
!width="12.5%"|[[George Modelski|Modelski]]
|-
|[[Eridu]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Bad-tibira]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|
|-
|[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Sippar]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|
|-
|[[Shuruppak]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|10,000—30,000
|17,000
|-
|[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|20,000
|25,000
|-
|[[Uruk]]
|
|50,000
|50,000
|
|
|30,000—40,000
|50,000
|-
|[[Ur]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|10,000—15,000
|10,000
|
|-
|[[Adab (city)|Adab]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|13,000
|-
|[[Akshak]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|-
|[[Isin]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Larsa]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|
|10,000
|-
|[[Girsu]]
|
|
|
|
|
|40,000—80,000
|
|-
|[[Lagash]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|19,000
|10,000—15,000
|30,000—60,000
|40,000
|-
|[[Umma]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|16,000
|10,000—15,000
|40,000
|34,000
|-
|[[Eshnunna]]
|
|
|
|9,000
|
|
|
|-
|[[Tutub]]
|
|
|
|12,000
|
|
|
|-
|[[Nippur]]
|
|
|10,000—20,000
|
|
|20,000
|20,000
|-
|[[Kesh (Sumer)|Kesh]]
|
|
|
|
|
|10,000
|11,000
|-
|[[Zabala (Sumer)|Zabala]]
|
|
|
|
|
|10,000
|
|-
|[[Assur]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Nineveh]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Akkad (city)|Akkad]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Mari, Syria|Mari]]
|
|
|
|
|
|40,000
|
|-
|[[Ebla]]
|≤40,000
|
|
|
|30,000
|
|
|-
|[[Shekhna]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|20,000
|-
|[[Tell Brak|Nagar]]
|
|
|
|
|
|10,000—15,000
|15,000
|-
|[[Tell Chuera]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|[[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|10,000
|-
|[[Susa]]
|
|
|
|
|10,000—15,000
|
|
|}

===Ethnicities and languages===
{{see|Genetic history of the Middle East#Iraq}}
====Ethnic groups====
*[[Sumerian people]]
*[[Elamites|Elamite people]]
*[[Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples|Semitic people]]
====Languages====
*[[Language isolates]]
**[[Proto-Euphratean language|Proto-Euphratean]]
**[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
***Emegir variety
***[[Emesal|Emesal sociolect]]
**[[Elamite language|Elamite]]
*[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
**[[East Semitic languages|East Semitic]]
***Kishite
***[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]]
****[[Mari, Syria#People, language and government|Mariote dialect]]
***[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
**[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
***[[Amorite language|Amorite]]
====Sumerian people====
{{main|Sumerian people}}
Most historians have suggested that [[Sumer]] was first permanently settled {{circa|5500|3300}} BC by a [[Genetic history of the Middle East#Iraq|West Asian]] people who spoke [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] (a non-[[Semitic]], non-[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]], [[language isolate]]). Sumerian [[civilization]] originated in the southeastern reaches of the [[Fertile Crescent]]—a region once widely regarded by the general consensus of mainstream historians to be the only [[cradle of civilization|cradle]] in which the first known complex, [[Sedentism|non-nomadic]], [[Agrarian society|agrarian]] [[civilization]] (that being Sumer) spread out from by influence. The [[history of Sumer]] is usually taken to include the prehistoric [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]], [[Uruk period|Uruk]], and [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] periods. It appears that the archaeological culture of the Ubaidians' may have been derived from that of the [[Samarra culture|Samarra]]ns'.

Ever since the decipherment of the Sumerian cuneiform script; it has been the subject of much effort to relate it to a wide variety of languages. Proposals for linguistic affinity sometimes have a nationalistic background because it has a peculiar prestige as one of the most ancient written languages. Such proposals enjoy virtually no support among linguists because of their unverifiability. Some [[Assyriologists]] have argued that by examining the structure of the Sumerian language, its names for occupations; as well as, [[toponyms]] and [[hydronyms]]—one can suggest that there was once an [[ethnic group]] in the region that preceded the Sumerians. These ''pre-Sumerian'' people are now referred to as ''[[Proto-Euphratean|Proto-Euphrateans]]'' (or ''Ubaidians''), and are theorized to have developed out of the culture centered at the [[Samarra Archaeological City]] ({{circa|6200|4700}} BCE).

Proto-Euphratean is considered by some to have been the [[Stratum (linguistics)|substratum]] language of the people that introduced farming into lower Mesopotamia during the Early Ubaid period ({{circa|5500|4500}} BCE). Proto-Euphratean may have exerted an [[Areal feature|areal]] influence on it (especially in the form of polysyllabic words that sound ''un-Sumerian'')—making researchers suspect them of being [[loanwords]]—and untraceable to any other known language. There is little speculation as to the affinities of this substratum language; therefore, it remains [[Unclassified language|unclassified]]. Sumerian was once widely held to be an Indo-European language; but, that view later came to be almost universally rejected. It has also been suggested that Sumerian descended from a late [[prehistoric]] [[creole language]].

Other scholars think that the Sumerian language may have originally been that of the hunting and fishing peoples who lived in the [[Mesopotamian Marshes]] and the [[Eastern Arabia|Eastern Arabia littoral region]]; additionally, were part of the Arabian [[bifacial]] culture. Some [[archaeologists]] believe that the Sumerians lived along the [[Persian gulf]] coast of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] before a flood at the end of [[Last Glacial Period]] {{circa|10000|8000}} BCE. Many scholars have proposed historical and genetic links between the present-day [[Marsh Arabs]] and the Sumerians of [[ancient Iraq]] based off of: their methods for house-building ([[mudhif|mudhifs]]), homeland (Mesopotamian Marshes), and shared agricultural practices; however, there is no written record of the marsh tribes until the [[ninth century|ninth century CE]]—and the Sumerians had already lost their distinct ethnic identity some 2,700 years prior.

A genetic analysis of four ancient Mesopotamian skeletal DNA samples suggests an association of the Sumerians with the inhabitants of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (possibly as a result of ancient [[Indus-Mesopotamia relations]]). Sumerians (or at least some of them) may have been related to the original [[Dravidian people|Dravidian]] population of India.
====Elamite people====
{{main|Elamites}}
====Semitic people====
{{main|Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples}}
A [[Bayesian inference|Bayesian]] analysis suggested an origin for all known [[Semitic languages]] with a population of [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] migrating from the [[History of the ancient Levant#Bronze Age|Levant]] {{circa|3750}} BCE; furthermore, spreading into Mesopotamia and possibly contributing to the collapse of the Uruk period {{circa|3100}} BCE. [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] has been identified as the center of the earliest known East Semitic culture (the ''[[Kish civilization]]''). This early East Semitic culture is characterized by linguistic, literary, and orthographic similarities extending across settlements such as [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Nagar]], [[Abu Salabikh]], and [[Ebla]].

The similarities include the use of a [[writing system]] that contained non-[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] [[logograms]], the use of the same system in naming the months of the year, dating by [[regnal years]], and a measuring system (among many others). However, the existence of a single authority ruling those lands has not been assumed as each city had its own monarchical system, in addition to some linguistic differences for while the languages of Mari and Ebla were closely related, Kish represented an independent East Semitic linguistic entity that spoke a sort of dialect (Kishite), different from that of both the [[Akkadian language#History and writing|pre-Sargonic Akkadian]] and [[Eblaite language]]s. The East Semitic languages are one of three divisions of the Semitic languages, and is attested by three distinct languages: Kishite, Akkadian, and Eblaite (all of which have been long [[extinct language|extinct]]). Kishite is the oldest known Semitic language.

Throughout the [[third millennium BCE]], an intimate cultural symbiosis developed between [[Sumerians]] and Semites (which included widespread [[bilingualism]]). The influence of the Sumerian and East Semitic languages on each other is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a substantial scale to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and the East Semitic languages during the third millennium BCE as a ''[[sprachbund]]''.

==Languages==
===Language isolates===
{{main|Language isolates}}
====Sumerian language====
{{main|Sumerian language}}
=====Emegir variety=====
=====Emesal sociolect=====
{{main|Emesal|sociolect}}
====Proto-Euphratean language====
{{main|Proto-Euphratean language}}

====Elamite language====
{{main|Elamite language}}
====Semitic languages====
{{main|Semitic languages}}
=====East Semitic languages=====
{{main|East Semitic languages}}
======Kishite language======
======Eblaite language======
{{main|Eblaite language}}
======Mariote dialect======
{{see|Mari, Syria#People, language and government}}
======Akkadian language======
{{main|Akkadian language}}
=====West Semitic languages=====
{{main|West Semitic languages}}
======Amorite language======
{{main|Amorite language}}
==Mathematics, measurement, writing, and timekeeping systems==
===Mathematics===
===Cuneiform===
{{main|Cuneiform#Early Dynastic cuneiform (circa 2500 BC)}}
<gallery>
File:Stone foundation inscription, from Tell al-Ubaid, Iraq, 2500 BCE. British Museum (horizontal).jpg
File:BM 91013 Tablet dedicated by Lugal-tarsi.jpg
File:An Inscribed stand's head mentioning the name of Entemena, ruler of Lagash, early dynastic period, c. 2400 BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum.jpg
File:Door-hinge, inscribed with the name of Entemena of Lagash, c. 2400 BCE, from Iraq. Pergamon Museum.jpg
File:Tablet of Enannatum son of Akurgal.jpg
File:Inscribed giant river-worn pebble - ME 114399 - British Museum.JPG
File:Stone plaque depicting Enannatum I, king of Lagash Early Dynastic III 2424-2405 BCE from Girsu.jpg
File:Clay Nails - Louvre - AO22934 & AO12480.jpg
</gallery>
====Sumerian cuneiform====
{{main|Cuneiform#Early Dynastic cuneiform (circa 2500 BC)}}
====Akkadian cuneiform====
{{main|Akkadian cuneiform}}
====Elamite cuneiform====
{{main|Elamite cuneiform}}
====Literature and other texts====
{{main|Sumerian literature|Akkadian literature}}
{{see|Ancient literature#Bronze Age}}
{{see also|List of languages by first written accounts#Before 1000 BC}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Publication date(s)
!width="25%"|Language(s)
!width="25%"|Text(s)
!width="25%"|Genre(s)
|-
|{{circa|2600|2200 BCE}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
|
*''[[Eridu Genesis]]''
**''[[Barton Cylinder]]''
**''[[Ziusudra|Epic of Ziusudra]]''
***''[[Instructions of Shuruppak]]''
**''[[Myth of Enlil and Ninlil]]''
|[[Creation myth]]
|-
|{{circa|2600|2200 BCE}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
|''[[Kesh temple hymn]]''
|[[Hymn]]
|-
|{{circa|2600|2200 BCE}}
|[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
|''[[Legend of Etana]]''
|[[Legend]]
|-
|{{circa|2600|2200 BCE}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>and<br>[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]]
|''[[Ebla tablets]]''
|[[Lexical lists]]<br>[[Regnal list]]s<br>[[Gazetteers]]
|-
|{{circa|2400|2200 BCE}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
|''[[Code of Urukagina]]''
|[[Legal code]]
|}
<gallery>
File:Fragment of a marble bowl inscribed with the name of Geshtinanna, Sumerian, from Uruk, currently housed in the British Museum.jpg
</gallery>

===Elamite writing systems and scripts===
====Proto-Elamite script====
{{main|Proto-Elamite script}}
====Linear Elamite====
{{main|Linear Elamite}}
===Calendar===
<center>
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
|-
!width="25%"|[[Month]]
!width="25%"|[[Tutelary deity]]
!width="25%"|[[Zodiac sign]]
!width="25%"|[[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian equivalent]]
|-
|
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|♑︎<br>[[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]]
|[[December]]—[[January]]
|-
|
|
|♒︎<br>[[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]]
|[[January]]—[[February]]
|-
|Šesagkud<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊺𒆥𒋻}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047795# še.sag₁₁.ku₅]}}}}
|[[Ninhursag]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄯𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046862# <sup>d</sup>nin.ḫur.saŋ]}}}}
|♓︎<br>[[Pisces (astrology)|Pisces]]
|[[February]]—[[March]]
|-
|
|
|♈︎<br>[[Aries (astrology)|Aries]]
|[[March]]—[[April]]
|-
|
|
|♉︎<br>[[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]]
|[[April]]—[[May]]
|-
|Ezemlugaliribarak<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒈗𒌷𒁇}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018815# ezem.<sup>d</sup>lugal.iri.bar]}}}}
|[[Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea|Lugal-irra]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈗𒌷𒁇𒊏}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045929# <sup>d</sup>lugal.iri.bar.ra]}}}}<br>+<br>[[Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea|Meslamta-ea]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈩𒇴𒋫𒌓𒁺}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0020133# <sup>d</sup>mes.lam.ta.e₃]}}}}
|♊︎<br>[[Gemini (astrology)|Gemini]]
|[[May]]—[[June]]
|-
|Ezemdumuzid<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒌉𒍣}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0020133# ezem.<sup>d</sup>dumu.zid]}}}}
|[[Dumuzid|Ama-ušumgal-ana]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂼𒃲𒁔}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0019231# <sup>d</sup>ama.ušumgal]}}}}
|♋︎<br>[[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]]
|[[June]]—[[July]]
|-
|Ezembilgames<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒈩}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0199967# ezem.<sup>d</sup>bil₃.ga.mes]}}}}
|[[Gilgamesh]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒈩}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044756# <sup>d</sup>gilgameš₄]}}}}
|♌︎<br>[[Leo (astrology)|Leo]]
|[[July]]—[[August]]
|-
|Kin-Inana<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆥𒀭𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045558# kin.<sup>d</sup>inana]}}}}
|[[Inanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045253# <sup>d</sup>inana]}}}}
|♍︎<br>[[Virgo (astrology)|Virgo]]
|[[August]]—[[September]]
|-
|
|
|♎︎<br>[[Libra (astrology)|Libra]]
|[[September]]—[[October]]
|-
|Ezemlisina<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒉈𒋜}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0199974# ezem.<sup>d</sup>li₉.si₄]}}}}
|[[Lisin]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒉈𒋜}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045776# <sup>d</sup>li₉.si₄]}}}}
|♏︎<br>[[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]]
|[[October]]—[[November]]
|-
|
|[[Pabilsaĝ]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒉺𒄑𒉋𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047318# <sup>d</sup>pa.bil₃.saŋ]}}}}
|♐︎<br>[[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]]
|[[November]]—[[December]]
|-
|Ezembaba<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒁀𒌑}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0199974# ezem.<sup>d</sup>ba.ba₆]}}}}
|[[Bau (goddess)|Bau]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒁀𒌑}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0199965# <sup>d</sup>ba.u₂]}}}}
|
|
|-
|Ezemlugalurubak<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒀭𒈗𒌾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018817# ezem.<sup>d</sup>lugal.urub]}}}}
|Lugal-Urub<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈗𒌾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046788# <sup>d</sup>lugal.urub]}}}}
|
|
|-
|Ezemmahninegalak<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒈤𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂍𒃲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018821# ezem.maḫ.<sup>d</sup>nin.e₂.gal]}}}}
|[[Ninegal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂍𒃲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046788# <sup>d</sup>nin.e₂.gal]}}}}
|
|
|-
|Ezemmahnanna<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒈤𒀭𒋀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018819# ezem.maḫ.<sup>d</sup>nanna]}}}}
|[[Sin (mythology)|Nannar]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒋀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046577# <sup>d</sup>nanna]}}}}
|
|
|-
|Ezemmahningublagak<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂡𒈤𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂯}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018823# ezem.maḫ.<sup>d</sup>nin.gublaga]}}}}
|Nin-gublaga<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂯}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046828# <sup>d</sup>nin.gublaga]}}}}
|
|
|}</center>

==Religion==
{{main|Ancient Mesopotamian religion}}
{{see|Sumerian religion|Elamite religion|Ancient Semitic religion}}
===Gods===
{{main|List of Mesopotamian deities}}
====King of the gods====
{{see|King of the gods}}
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|[[Personification|Personifies]]
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Uranus]]<br>or<br>[[Saturn]]
|[[Sky father|Sky]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Primordial gods====
{{see also|Chaos (cosmogony)#Chaoskampf}}
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Abzu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒍪𒀊}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043146# abzu]}}}}
|—
|[[Cosmic ocean]]
|{{circa|5500|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Uranus]]<br>or<br>[[Saturn]]
|[[Sky father|Sky]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ki (goddess)|Ki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0031826# ki]}}}}
|[[Earth]]
|[[Earth goddess|Earth]]
|{{circa|3500|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Nammu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒇉}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046553# <sup>d</sup>nammu]}}}}
|—
|[[Mother goddess|Motherhood]]
|{{circa|2500|1300 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Divine triad====
{{see|Triple deity}}
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Uranus]]<br>or<br>[[Saturn]]
|[[Sky father|Sky]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Enlil]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆤}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044332# <sup>d</sup>en.lil₂]}}}}
|—
|[[Weather god|Weather]]
|{{circa|3400|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|[[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
|[[Creation deity|Creation]]<br>[[Water deity|Water]]<br>[[Geshtu-E|Knowledge]]
|{{circa|2500|600 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Seven gods who decree====
{{see|Anunnaki#Sumerian}}
{{see also|Time and fate deities#Western Asia}}
=====Four primary gods=====
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Uranus]]<br>or<br>[[Saturn]]
|[[Sky father|Sky]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Enlil]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆤}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044332# <sup>d</sup>en.lil₂]}}}}
|—
|[[Weather god|Weather]]
|{{circa|3400|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|[[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
|[[Creation deity|Creation]]<br>[[Water deity|Water]]<br>[[Geshtu-E|Knowledge]]
|{{circa|2500|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ninhursag]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄯𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046862# <sup>d</sup>nin.ḫur.saŋ]}}}}
|—
|[[List of fertility deities|Fertility]]
|{{circa|3000|500 BCE}}
|}</center>
=====Three sky gods=====
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Inanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045253# <sup>d</sup>inana]}}}}
|[[Venus]]
|[[List of love and lust deities|Love]]<br>[[List of beauty deities|Beauty]]<br>[[Lady Justice|Justice]]<br>[[List of war deities|War]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Sin (mythology)|Nannar]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒋀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046577# <sup>d</sup>nanna]}}}}
|[[Moon]]
|[[Lunar deity|Moon]]
|{{circa|2600 BCE|300 CE}}
|-
|[[Utu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒌓}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048408# <sup>d</sup>utu]}}}}
|[[Sun]]
|[[Solar deity|Sun]]
|{{circa|3500|30 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Celestial bodies and gods====
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Utu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒌓}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048408# <sup>d</sup>utu]}}}}
|[[Sun]]
|[[Solar deity|Sun]]
|{{circa|3500|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|[[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
|[[Creation deity|Creation]]<br>[[Water deity|Water]]<br>[[Geshtu-E|Knowledge]]
|{{circa|2500|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Inanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045253# <sup>d</sup>inana]}}}}
|[[Venus]]
|[[List of love and lust deities|Love]]<br>[[List of beauty deities|Beauty]]<br>[[Lady Justice|Justice]]<br>[[List of war deities|War]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ki (goddess)|Ki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0031826# ki]}}}}
|[[Earth]]
|[[Earth goddess|Earth]]
|{{circa|3500|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Sin (mythology)|Nannar]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒋀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046577# <sup>d</sup>nanna]}}}}
|[[Moon]]
|[[Lunar deity|Moon]]
|{{circa|2600 BCE|300 CE}}
|-
|[[Nergal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒆧𒀕𒀕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046630# <sup>d</sup>nergalₓ(kiš.ab<sup>g</sup>)]}}}}
|[[Mars]]
|[[List of death deities|Death]]
|{{circa|2600|500 BCE}}
|-
|[[Marduk]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒀫𒌓}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0019241# <sup>d</sup>amar.ud]}}}}
|[[Jupiter]]
|[[Vegetation deity|Vegetation]]
|{{circa|2600|500 BCE}}
|-
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Uranus]]<br>or<br>[[Saturn]]
|[[Sky father|Sky]]
|{{circa|4000|30 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Other major gods====
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Ereshkigal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒆠𒃲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044491# <sup>d</sup>ereš.ki.gal]}}}}
|—
|[[Chthonic]]
|{{circa|2500|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ninurta]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047129# <sup>d</sup>nin.urta]}}}}
|—
|[[List of hunting deities|Hunting]]
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Minor gods====
<center>
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Deity
!width="25%"|Celestial body
!width="25%"|Personifies
!width="25%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea|Meslamta-ea]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈩𒇴𒋫𒌓𒁺}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0020133# <sup>d</sup>mes.lam.ta.e₃]}}}}
|—
|[[Divine twins]]
|{{circa|2600|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Pabilsaĝ]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒉺𒄑𒉋𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047318# <sup>d</sup>pa.bil₃.saŋ]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Bau (goddess)|Bau]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒁀𒌑}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0043635# <sup>d</sup>ba.u₂]}}}}
|—
|[[List of health deities|Health]]
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ninegal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂍𒃲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046788# <sup>d</sup>nin.e₂.gal]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|500 BCE}}
|-
|Lugal-Urub<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈗𒌾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046788# <sup>d</sup>lugal.urub]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2500|1900 BCE}}
|-
|Nin-gublaga<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒂯}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046828# <sup>d</sup>nin.gublaga]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ištaran]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒅗𒁲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045379# <sup>d</sup>ištaran]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Nintinugga]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒁷?𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047084# <sup>d</sup>nin.tin.ugₓ(ezenₓḫal).ga]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Shara (god)|Shara]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒇋}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047725# <sup>d</sup>šara₂]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|700 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ninlil]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒆤}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0046958# <sup>d</sup>nin.lil₂]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ninazu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀀𒍫}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046736# <sup>d</sup>nin.a.zu₅]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|600 BCE}}
|-
|[[Lisin]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒉈𒋜}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045776# <sup>d</sup>li₉.si₄]}}}}
|—
|—
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|}</center>
====Posthumously deified rulers of Sumer====
{{see|List of people who have been considered deities#Posthumous deification}}
{{see also|Apotheosis}}
<center>
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="50%"|Deity
!width="50%"|Dates of worship
|-
|[[Lugalbanda]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈗𒌉𒁕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045828# <sup>d</sup>lugal.banda₃<sup>da</sup>]}}}}
|{{circa|2600|30 BCE}}
|-
|[[Ama-ušumgal-ana]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂼𒃲𒁔}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0019231# <sup>d</sup>ama.ušumgal]}}}}
|{{circa|2600|1300 BCE}}
|-
|[[Gilgamesh]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒄑𒉋𒂵𒈩}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044756# <sup>d</sup>gilgameš₄]}}}}
|{{circa|2600|1900 BCE}}
|}</center>
===Cosmology===
====Metaphysical realms====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"colspan="2"|Realm
!width="25%"|Placement
!width="25%"|Inhabitants
!width="25%"|Ruler
|-
!rowspan="5"|[[Kishar|Totality]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒊹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0032294# ki.šar₂]}}}}
|[[Anu|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Seven Heavens|Heaven]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|[[Anunnaki|Gods]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒀀𒉣𒈾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043392# <sup>d</sup>a.nun.na]}}}}
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|-
|[[Ki (goddess)|Ki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0031826# ki]}}}}
|[[Four corners of the world|Earth]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0033744# ma]}}}}
|[[Humankind|People]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂟}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0027202# erin₂]}}}}
|[[Ninhursag]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄯𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046862# <sup>d</sup>nin.ḫur.saŋ]}}}}
|-
|[[Kur]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆳}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0032654# kur]}}}}
|[[Kur|Netherworld]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒅕𒆗𒆷}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045341# <sup>d</sup>ir.kal.la]}}}}
|[[Gidim|Ghosts]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄇}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0028131# gidim]}}}}<br>+<br>[[Gallu|Demons]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋼𒇲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0027770# gal₅.la₂]}}}}
|[[Ereshkigal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒆠𒃲}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044491# <sup>d</sup>ereš.ki.gal]}}}}
|-
|[[Abzu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒍪𒀊}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043146# abzu]}}}}
|[[Cosmic ocean|Primeval sea]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒇉}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0027037# engur]}}}}
|—
|[[Nammu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒇉}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046553# <sup>d</sup>nammu]}}}}
|}
====Physical realms====
=====Central realms (Sumer and Akkad)=====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Region
!width="25%"|(Proposed) Locations
!width="25%"|People
!width="25%"|Language
|-
|[[Akkad (region)|Akkad]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043186# a.ga.de₃<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:Salah ad-Din in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Akkadians]]<br>+<br>[[Sumerians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊕𒈪𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037371# saŋ.gig₂.ga]}}}}
|[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]<br>+<br>[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026899# eme.gi]}}}}
|-
|[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆧𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045588# kiš<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}<br>+<br>[[Sumer]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒂗𒄄}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045501# <sup>ki</sup>en.gi₄]}}}}
|[[File:Babil in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Kish civilization|Kishites]]<br>+<br>[[Sumerians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊕𒈪𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037371# saŋ.gig₂.ga]}}}}
|[[East Semitic|Kishite]]<br>+<br>[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026899# eme.gi]}}}}
|-
|[[Sumer]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒂗𒄄}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045501# <sup>ki</sup>en.gi₄]}}}}
|[[File:Al-Qadisiyyah in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Sumerians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊕𒈪𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037371# saŋ.gig₂.ga]}}}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026899# eme.gi]}}}}
|-
|[[Uruk|Mountain of Eanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆳 𒂍𒀭𒈾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|kur e₂.an.na.bi}}}}<br>+<br>[[Sumer]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒂗𒄄}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045501# <sup>ki</sup>en.gi₄]}}}}
|[[File:Al-Muthanna in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Sumerians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊕𒈪𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037371# saŋ.gig₂.ga]}}}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026899# eme.gi]}}}}
|-
|[[Gu-Edin]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄘𒂔𒈾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044814# gu₂.edin.na]}}}}<br>+<br>Kalam<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|[[Wikt:𒌦|𒌦]]}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0031548# kalam]}}}}<br>+<br>[[Sumer]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒂗𒄄}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045501# <sup>ki</sup>en.gi₄]}}}}
|[[File:Dhi Qar in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Sumerians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊕𒈪𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037371# saŋ.gig₂.ga]}}}}
|[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026899# eme.gi]}}}}
|}

=====Northern realms=====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Region
!width="25%"|(Proposed) Locations
!width="25%"|People
!width="25%"|Language
|-
|[[Mediterranean Sea|Upper Sea]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅆𒉏𒈠𒊺 𒀀𒀊𒁀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0030736# igi.nim.ma.še][http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0023213# a.ab.ba]}}}}
|[[File:Mediterranean Sea in its region.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Subartu|Shubur]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋚}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0258550# šubur]}}}}
|[[File:Ninawa in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Subarians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋚}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0038185# subur]}}}}
|[[East Semitic|Kishite]]<br>and<br>[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]]
|}
=====Eastern realms=====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Region
!width="25%"|(Proposed) Locations
!width="25%"|People
!width="25%"|Language
|-
|[[Susiana]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈹𒂞𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0018830# šušin<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranKhuzestan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|[[Elamites]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[Elamite language|Elamite]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴 𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# eme elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|-
|[[Elam]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉏𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# elam<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranIlam-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|[[Elamites]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[Elamite language|Elamite]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴 𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# eme elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|-
|[[Awan (ancient city)|Awan]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀀𒉿𒀭𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0254879# a.wa.an<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranLorestan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|[[Elamites]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[Elamite language|Elamite]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴 𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# eme elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|-
|[[Anshan (Persia)|Anshan]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒁺𒀭𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043376# an.ša₄.an<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranFars-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|[[Elamites]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[Elamite language|Elamite]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴 𒉏𒈠𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044139# eme elam.ma<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|-
|[[Hamazi]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄩𒈠𒍣𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044977# ḫa.ma.zi<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranKermanshah-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Gutium]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄖𒋾𒌝𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044853# gu.ti.um<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranKurdistan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|[[Gutians]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄖𒋾𒌝𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044853# gu.ti.um<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[Gutian language|Gutian]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅴𒄖𒋾𒌝}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044853# eme gu.ti.um]}}}}
|-
|[[Aratta]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒇶𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043440# aratta<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranWestAzerbaijan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Shimashki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒇻𒋢𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047805# šimaški<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranEsfahan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Marhasi]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈥𒄩𒅆𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046273# mar.ḫa.ši<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:IranSistanBaluchistan-SVG.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Meluhha]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈨𒈛𒄩𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046355# me.luḫ.ḫa<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:Balochistan in Pakistan (claims hatched).svg|thumb]]
|[[Harappan civilization]]
|[[Harappan language]]<br>+<br>[[Harappan script]]
|}
=====Southern realms=====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Region
!width="25%"|(Proposed) Locations
!width="25%"|People
!width="25%"|Language
|-
|[[Persian gulf|Lower Sea]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋝𒋫𒋫 𒀀𒀊𒁀}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0037848# sig.ta.ta][http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0023213# a.ab.ba]}}}}
|[[File:Persian Gulf in its region (IHO 1953).svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Dilmun]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉌𒌇}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043779# dilmun<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:Ash Sharqiyah in Saudi Arabia.svg|thumb]]
|—
|—
|-
|[[Magan (civilization)|Magan]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈣𒃶𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046355# ma₂.gan<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|[[File:LocationOman.png|thumb]]
|—
|—
|}
=====Western realms=====
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
!width="25%"|Region
!width="25%"|(Proposed) Locations
!width="25%"|People
!width="25%"|Language
|-
|[[Amorites|Martu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈥𒌅}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046282# mar.tu]}}}}
|[[File:Al-Anbar in Iraq.svg|thumb]]
|[[Amorites]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈥𒌅}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0033952# mar.tu]}}}}
|[[Amorite language|Amorite]]
|-
|Sutium<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋢𒋾𒌝}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047665# su.ti.um]}}}}
|[[File:Aleppo in Syria (+Golan hatched).svg|thumb]]
|[[Suteans]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋢𒋾𒌝}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047665# su.ti.um]}}}}
|[[Sutean language|Sutean]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋢𒋾𒌝}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047665# su.ti.um]}}}}
|}

==Government and administration==
===Titles===
{{see|Akkadian royal titulary}}
{|class="wikitable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
|-
!width="20%"|Sumerian title
!width="20%"|Literal translation
!width="20%"|[[Imperial, royal and noble ranks|European equivalent]]
!width="20%"|Examples
!width="20%"|Dates in use
|-
|
|Lord of Sumer and king of all the land
|[[King-Emperor]]
|
|
|-
|
|King of the land
|[[Emperor]]
|
|
|-
|[[King of the Universe|Lugal Kis<sup>ki</sup>]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈗𒆧𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0033341# lugal]}}}}
|
|[[Great king]]
|
|
|-
|[[Lugal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒈗}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0033341# lugal]}}}}
|Big man
|[[King]]
|
|
|-
|[[NIN (cuneiform)|Nin]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒊩𒌆}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0027164# ereš]}}}}
|
|[[Queen regnant|Queen]]
|
|
|-
|Nun<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉣}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0036543# nun]}}}}
|
|[[Prince]]
|
|
|-
|[[Ensi (Sumerian)|Ensi]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉺𒋼𒋛}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0027087# ensi₂]}}}}
|Lord of the plowland
|[[Governor]]
|
|
|-
|[[EN (cuneiform)|En]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂗}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0026952# en]}}}}
|Lord
|[[Lord]]
|
|
|-
|[[LÚ|Lú]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒇽}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0033207# lu₂]}}}}
|Man
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|Slave
|
|
|-
|}

===Law and order===
{{see|Cuneiform law}}
Anthropological evidence suggests that most societies before Sumer, along with most contemporary civilizations, were relatively [[egalitarian]]. Earlier periods of Sumer were also very egalitarian by nature, but that started to change with the rise of the ED. Sumerian culture was male-dominated and stratified. By the time the Akkadian Empire rose to power, [[patriarchy]] was a well-established cultural norm.

Sumerian myths suggested a prohibition against premarital sex. Marriages were often arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride's father. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that premarital sex was a common, but surreptitious, occurrence. Prostitution existed but it is not clear if [[sacred prostitution]] did.
====Code of Urukagina====
{{main|Code of Urukagina}}
{{see|Code of law}}
{{see also|List of ancient legal codes}}
[[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] is best known for his reforms to combat corruption (the ''[[Code of Urukagina]]'' is sometimes cited as the earliest known example of a [[legal code]] in [[recorded history]]). The ''Code of Urukagina'' has also been widely hailed as the first recorded example of government reform, seeking to achieve a higher level of [[Freedom (philosophy)|freedom]] and [[equality before the law|equality]]. Although the actual ''Code of Urukagina'' text has yet to be discovered, much of its content may be surmised from other references to it that have been found. In the ''Code of Urukagina'': Urukagina exempted widows and orphans from taxes, compelled the city to pay funeral expenses (including the ritual food and drink [[libations]] for the journey of the dead into the lower world), and decreed that the rich had to use [[silver]] when purchasing from the poor, and if the poor does not wish to sell, the powerful man (the rich man or the priest) cannot force him to do so. The ''Code of Urukagina'': limited the power of both the [[priesthood]] and [[latifundia|large property]] owners, took measures against usury, burdensome controls, hunger, theft, murder, and seizure (of people's property and persons); as Urukagina stated: "The widow and the orphan were no longer at the mercy of the powerful man."

Despite these apparent attempts to curb the excesses of the elite class, it seems elite or royal women enjoyed even greater influence and prestige in Urukagina's reign than previously. Urukagina greatly expanded the royal "Household of Women" from about 50 persons to about 1,500 persons, then renamed it to "Household of Goddess Bau", gave it ownership of vast amounts of land confiscated from the former priesthood, and placed it under the supervision of Urukagina's wife (Shasha, or Shagshag). During the second year of Urukagina's reign, his wife presided over the lavish funeral of his predecessor's queen ([[Baranamtarra]], who had been an important personage in her own right).

In addition to such changes, two of Urukagina's other surviving decrees have attracted controversy in recent decades:
#Urukagina seems to have abolished the former custom of [[polyandry]] in his country, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned with rocks upon which her crime was written.
#In a statute where it was written: "If a woman says [text illegible...] to a man, her mouth is crushed with burnt bricks."
No comparable [[laws]] from Urukagina addressing penalties for adultery by men have survived. The discovery of these fragments has led some modern critics to assert that they provide: "The first written evidence of the degradation of women."
====Reform Document====
The following extracts are taken from the ''Reform Document'':
#"From the border territory of Ningirsu to the sea, no person shall serve as officers."
#"For a corpse being brought to the grave, his beer shall be 3 jugs and his bread 80 loaves. 1 bed and 1 lead goat shall the undertaker take away, and 3 ban of barley shall the person(s) take away."
#"When to the reeds of Enki a person has been brought, his beer will be 4 jugs, and his bread 420 loaves. 1 barig of barley shall the undertaker take away, and 3 ban of barley shall the persons of... take away. 1 woman’s headband, and 1 sila of princely fragrance shall the eresh-dingir priestess take away. 420 loaves of bread that have sat are the bread duty, 40 loaves of hot bread are for eating, and 10 loaves of hot bread are the bread of the table. 5 loaves of bread are for the persons of the levy, 2 mud vessels and 1 sadug vessel of beer are for the lamentation singers of Girsu. 490 loaves of bread, 2 mud vessels and 1 sadug vessel of beer are for the lamentation singers of Lagash. 406 of bread, 2 mud vessels, and 1 sadug vessel of beer are for the other lamentation singers. 250 loaves of bread and 1 mud vessel of beer are for the old wailing women. 180 loaves of bread and one mud vessel of beer are for the men of Nigin."
#"The blind one who stands in..., his bread for eating is 1 loaf, 5 loaves of bread are his at midnight, 1 loaf is his bread at midday, and 6 loaves are his bread in the evening."
#"60 loaves of bread, 1 mud vessel of beer, and 3 ban of barley are for the person who is to perform as the sagbur priest."
<gallery>
File:Cone fragment inscribed with part of the text of the reforms of Uruinimgina (Urukagina) - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC06974.JPG
File:Reform text of Urukagina, king of Lagash. Terracotta clay tablet. From Girsu, Iraq. 24th century BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg
File:Reform text of Urukagina, king of Lagash. Terracotta clay tablet. From Girsu, Iraq. 24th century BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul, Turkey.jpg
File:Clay Cone - Louvre Museum - AO3149.jpg
File:Sumerian Cuneiform Stone Cone - King Urukagina.jpg
File:Sumerian Cuneiform Stone Cone of Urukagina.jpg
File:P1120804 Louvre Cone d'Uru-KA-gina AO3149 rwk.JPG
File:Clay Cone - Louvre Museum- AO3278.jpg
</gallery>
==Economy, commerce, and trade==
{{main|Economy of Sumer}}
The Sumerian people used [[slavery in antiquity|slaves]]; although, they were not a major part of the economy. Slave [[women]] worked as: pressers, [[weavers]], [[millers]], and [[porters]].
===Trade and commerce===
====Imports====
{{main|Imports to Ur}}
{{see|Indus–Mesopotamia relations|Egypt–Mesopotamia relations}}
{{see also|Royal Cemetery of Ur}}
[[Imports to Ur]] were being exported from many parts of the world. Discoveries of goods from far-away locations such as: [[obsidian]] (from [[Anatolia]]), [[lapis lazuli]] (from [[Badakhshan]]), beads (from [[Dilmun]]), and seals inscribed with the [[Indus Valley script|script]] (from the [[Indus Valley civilization|Indus Valley]]), suggest a remarkably wide-ranging network of ancient trade centered on the [[Persian gulf]]. Metals of all types had to be imported. Both Sumerian [[masons]] and [[jewelry|jewelers]] knew and made use of: [[gold]], [[silver]], lapiz lazuli, [[chlorite]], [[ivory]], [[iron]], and [[carnelian]]. The ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' referred to trade with far lands for goods (such as [[Lebanon cedar]] wood, which was scarce in Mesopotamia). The finding of resin in the [[Royal Cemetery of Ur]], indicates that resin was traded from as far away as [[Mozambique]]. Sumerian potters decorated pots with [[paints]] made from [[cedar oil]]. The potters used a bow drill to produce the fire needed for baking the pottery.

Imports to Ur reflected the cultural and trade connections of the Sumerian city. During the EDIII, Ur was importing elite goods from geographically distant places. These objects included: [[precious metals]] (such as: gold and sliver) and [[semi-precious stones]] (such as: lapis lazuli and carnelian). These objects were all the more impressive considering the distance from which they traveled to reach Mesopotamia (and Ur, specifically). Mesopotamia was very well-suited for the agricultural production of plants and animals; however, was lacking in: metals, minerals, and stones.

The combination of these means of transportation allowed access to a vast trading network connecting distant places. Most of the gold known from archaeological contexts during the EDIII is concentrated at the royal cemetery of Ur. Textual evidence indicates that gold was reserved for prestige and religious functions. It was gathered in royal treasuries and temples, and used for the adornment of the elites as well as for the elites' funerary offerings (such as at the graves of the Royal Cemetery of Ur). Gold was used for personal ornaments, weapons, tools, sheet-metal [[cylinder seals]], fluted bowls, goblets, imitation cockle shells, and sculptures.

Silver was mainly used for uncoined currency; but, it was also used for objects (which is the state in which silver is found at the royal cemetery of Ur). Silver was used for objects including: belts, vessels, hair ornaments, pins, weapons, cockle shells, and sculptures. There are very few literary references to sources for silver. It is also difficult to identify the actual origin of the silver and the mines from those areas in which the majority of trade occurred. Because silver was used as currency it is even more difficult to pinpoint an area of origination due to its vast circulation.

Lapis lazuli is the best-known and well-documented gemstone at Ur (and Mesopotamia in general). In the royal cemetery of Ur, lapis lazuli was discovered to have been used for: jewelry, plaques, gaming boards, lyres, ostrich-egg vessels, and also used for parts of a larger sculptural group referred to as the ''[[Ram in a Thicket]]''.  Some of the larger objects included a spouted cup, dagger-hilt, and whetstone. Because of its prestige and value, lapiz lazuli played a special role in cult practices and the term ''lapis-like'' is a commonly-occurring metaphor for unusual wealth and as an attribute used to described both deities and heroes. It has been commonly found associated alongside gold.

During the EDIII, chlorite stone artifacts were very popular (and thus traded very widely). Chlorite stone artifacts included disc beads, ornaments, and stone vases. These carved dark stone vessels have been found in ancient [[archaeological sites]] across all of Mesopotamia. They rarely exceeded twenty-five centimeters in height, and may have been filled with precious oils. They often carried both human and animal motifs inlaid with semi-precious stones.
<gallery>
File:British Museum Middle East 14022019 Gold and carnelian beads 2600-2300 BC Royal cemetery of Ur (composite).jpg|A necklace made out of [[gold]] and [[carnelian]] beads (dated to {{circa|2600|2300}} BCE)
File:Golden bowl from the grave of Meskalamdug (PG 755, Ur).jpg|A bowl made out of gold (dated to {{circa|2600|2300}} BCE)
File:Diadem of gold ring pendants PG 1054.jpg|A [[diadem]] made out of gold ring [[pendants]] attached to a band of carnelian and [[lapis lazuli]] beads (dated to {{circa|2600|2500}} BCE)
File:Vessel with musical procession, Bismaya, Mound V, Temple, Early Dynastic period, 2700-2500 BC, chlorite, alabaster inlay - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07372.JPG|A vessel made out of [[chlorite]] and alabaster (dated to {{circa|2700|2500}} BCE)
File:Silver Bowl & Head Ornament Worn by King's Attendant.jpg|A bowl made out of [[silver]] and a head ornament (dated to {{circa|2700|2500}} BCE)
File:British Museum Middle East 14022019 Shell pouring vessel Ur 3721.jpg|A pouring vessel made out of a shell imported from the [[Gulf of Oman]] (dated to {{circa|2700|2500}} BCE)
File:Alabaster bowl recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (2).jpg|A bowl made out of [[alabaster]] (dated to {{circa|2550|2450}} BCE)
File:Plaque with female and male figures, Tell Asmar, Single-Shrine Temple III, Early Dynastic period, 2500-2330 BC, alabaster, shell, bitumen - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07365.JPG|A plaque made out of alabaster and [[asphalt]] (dated to {{circa|2500|2330}} BCE)
</gallery>
====Exports====
===Natural resources===
==Culture==
===Daily life===
====Arts and crafts====
{{see|Art of Mesopotamia}}
=====Sculpting=====
{{see|Sculpting#Ancient Near East}}
<gallery>
File:Lugaldalu, King of Adab.jpg
File:Female worshipper with tufted dress and wrapped headdress, Khafajah, Nintu Temple VII, Early Dynastic period, 2600-2500 BC, gypsum - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07453.JPG
File:Ebih-Il Louvre AO17551 n01.jpg
File:Stone statue of Kurlil Early Dynastic III 2500 BC Tell Al-'Ubaid, Iraq.jpg
File:Female head with elaborate hairstyle MET hb49 25a.jpg
File:Female head MET ME52 119 15.jpg
File:Head of a statue from Tell Asmar, excavated by the Oriental Institute in 1933. The Sulaymaniyah Museum.jpg
File:Head of a Sumerian female, from Khafajah, excavated by the Oriental Institute, Early Dynastic III, c. 2400 BCE. The Sulaymaniyah Museum.jpg
</gallery>
=====Metalworking and goldsmithing=====
{{see|Ferrous metallurgy#Ancient Near East}}
<gallery>
File:British Museum Middle east 14022019 Panel Imdugud 2500 BC 3640.jpg|''[[Tell al-'Ubaid Copper Lintel]]''
File:Bull statuette Louvre AO2151 - 01a.jpg
File:Vessel stand with ibex support - MET - ED III.jpg
</gallery>
=====Cylinder seals=====
{{see|Cylinder seals}}
<gallery>
File:Lapis Lazuli Cylinder Seal recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (32778200683).jpg
File:Flickr - Nic's events - British Museum with Cory and Mary, 6 Sep 2007 - 185.jpg
File:Cult scene god-ship Louvre AO6605.jpg
File:Cult scene Louvre AO22295.jpg
File:Cylinder seal and modern impression bull-man, bearded hero, and lion contest frieze,ca. 2600–2350 B.C. Early Dynastic III.jpg
File:Cylinder seal banquet Louvre AO18368.jpg
File:Cylinder seal battle Louvre AO18359.jpg
File:Cylinder seal god-ship Louvre AO18356.jpg
</gallery>
=====Inlays=====
{{see|Inlays}}
<gallery>
File:Lyre inlay of shell from the royal cemetery of Ur 2550-2450 BCE.jpg
File:Inlay of two standing goats BM 121529.jpg
File:Alabaster bull inlay. From southern Iraq, Early Dynastic Period, c. 2750-2400 BCE. The Burrell collection, Glasgow, UK.jpg
File:Inlay Akurgal Louvre AO11249.jpg
File:Inlay- dancing man MET DP122513.jpg
File:Inlay- seated male with cup and palm frond MET DP122510.jpg
File:Inlay- woman wearing a cylinder seal, playing a flute MET DP122553.jpg
</gallery>
=====Fashion=====
{{see|Clothing in the ancient world#Ancient Sumerian Clothing}}
======Jewelry======
{{see|Jewellery#Mesopotamia}}
<gallery>
File:Diadem from child's grave PG 1133.jpg|[[Diadem]]
File:Gold and lapis lazuli choker recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (32714809234).jpg|Gold and lapis lazuli [[choker]]
File:Gold necklace of flowerettes recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (32809281643).jpg|Gold [[necklace]]
File:Gold pendant recovered from the necropolis of Ur Iraq 625-539 BCE (33400750732).jpg|Gold [[pendant]]
File:Gold, Lapis Lazuli and Carnelian Garter recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE.jpg|Gold, lapis lazuli, and carnelian [[garter]]
File:Golf finger rings recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE.jpg|Gold [[finger rings]] 
File:Lapis lazuli fish amulet Puabi.jpg|Lapis lazuli fish [[amulet]]
File:Lapis Lazuli and Carnelian Cuff recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE.jpg|Lapis lazuli and carnelian [[Bracelet|cuff]]
</gallery>
====Games====
{{see|Royal Game of Ur}}
<gallery>
File:Gameboard recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur 2550-2450 BCE.jpg
File:British Museum Royal Game of Ur.jpg
File:Ur Royal Cemetery Game Pieces.jpg
</gallery>
====Music====
{{see|Music of Mesopotamia}}
<gallery>
File:Queen Shub-Ab's Harp (restored), Ur excavations (1900).jpg
File:Queen Shub-Ad's harp, detail of sound-box, Ur excavations (1900).jpg
File:Silver Lyre from the Great Death pit in Ur Sumerian about 2600 BCE.jpg
</gallery>
===Architecture===
{{see|Architecture of Mesopotamia}}
{{see also|List of building types}}
====Dwellings====
{{main|Dwellings}}
{{see also|List of house types}}
=====Mudbrick houses=====
{{main|Houses in ancient Sumeria}}
[[File:Milyanfan-adobe-bricks-8038.jpg|thumb|left]]
[[Houses in ancient Sumeria|Sumerian houses]] were usually large, rectangular, unwalled [[List of house types|dwellings]]. They were constructed on stone [[Foundation (engineering)|foundations]], with the houses themselves being made out of [[mudbricks]]. Wood, [[ashlar]] blocks, and rubble were also popular materials used to make houses. The mudbricks were made from [[clay]] and chopped straw. Sumerians used [[Earthen plaster|mudplaster]] for the walls; additionally, mud and [[Populus alba|poplar]] for the rooves.
[[File:Sun-dried Bricks (30781766991).jpg|thumb|right]]
Mesopotamian [[masonry]] was usually [[Mortar (masonry)|mortarless]]; although, [[asphalt]] was sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period. The favoured design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable, so Mesopotamian [[bricklayers]] would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages to plano-convex bricks were the speed of manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better than a smooth surface from other brick types.

The larger, more complex houses had square centre rooms or long-roofed central hallways with other, smaller rooms attached to the central ones; but, a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves. These houses could be tripartite, round, or rectangular. Such houses had [[courtyards]] and stairways leading to more rooms on second [[storeys]] and/or rooftops. These houses may have been the predecessors to the first religious, public, and domestic [[É (temple)|temples]] of Mesopotamia.
=====Reed huts=====
{{main|Mudhif}}
The smaller, simpler houses may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as from [[Reed (plant)|reeds]] on the outskirts of settlements; however, there is very little direct evidence for this. ''[[Mudhif]]s'' (or ''reed huts'') could be constructed out of bundles of reeds which would be tied to form parabolic arches (which make up the buildings' spines). These arches were strengthened by the pre-stressing of the columns, as they were initially inserted into the soil at opposing angles. Long cross beams of smaller, bundled reeds were laid across the arches and tied. The front and back walls were attached to two large vertical bundled reed columns and also made from woven mats.
<gallery>
File:Mesopotamian spirit house 1 REM.JPG
File:Modhif neserya 1.jpg
File:Iraqi mudhif interior.jpg
File:Mudhif by Gertrude Bell 1918 or 1920.jpg
File:Mudhif-sketch.png
</gallery>
====Public buildings====
=====Temples and ziggurats=====
{{main|É (temple)|Ziggurat}}
{{see also|Ubaid house}}
The precursors of [[ziggurats]] were raised platforms that date from the [[Ubaid period]]. Each ziggurat was part of a [[religious precinct]] that included other buildings. The ziggurats began as (usually oval, rectangular, or square-shaped) platforms. The ziggurats were [[mastaba]]-like structures with flat tops. The sun-baked [[brick]]s made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. Each step was slightly smaller than the step below it. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had [[Astrology|astrological]] significance. The number of floors ranged from two to seven.

The urban nucleus of [[Eridu]] was the ''Eabzu'' ziggurat temple surrounded by the [[Mesopotamian Marshes]] near the ancient Persian gulf coastline. Four separate excavations at the site have demonstrated the existence of a shrine dated to the Ubaid period. The temple was expanded 18 times from {{circa|5300|300}} BCE. On this basis it has been hypothesized that the [[tutelary deity]] of the temple was originally ''[[Abzu]]'' (later re-dedicated to ''[[Enki]]''). Four separate excavations at the site of Eridu have demonstrated the existence of a shrine (with a surface area of {{convert|0.9|sqm|sqft|abbr=on}} {{circa|5300}} BCE) located at the edge of a swamp that was expanded up to a surface area of {{convert|286|sqm|sqft|abbr=on}} by {{circa|3800}} BCE.
<gallery>
File:White Temple ziggurat in Uruk.jpg
File:Uruk Ziggurat (30744982822).jpg
File:2.... معبد الشمس.jpg
File:Ruins from a temple in Naffur.jpg
File:Eridu temple 7.png
File:Eridu mound4c.8.png
File:World's First City (30281054433).jpg
</gallery>
=====Religious precincts=====
{{main|Religious precinct}}
[[File:Uruk, erste Metropole der Weltgeschichte (CC BY 4.0).webm|thumb|right]]
[[File:Eanna3.svg|thumb|left|A map detailing the Eanna district during the time of the archaeological level of Uruk III (dated to {{circa|3200/3100|3000/2900 BCE}}).]]
Two such religious precincts (or ''districts'') were named after two gods of [[Sumerian religion]]: ''[[Anu]]'' (the ''Anu'' or ''Kullaba'' district) and ''[[Inanna]]'' (the ''[[Eanna]]'' district). The two districts merged to form a city known to the Sumerians as ''[[Uruk]]'' {{circa|5000|4000}} BCE. It was at Uruk that the Sumerians began construction of the Anu ziggurat {{circa|4000|3500}} BCE. The ziggurat reached to be {{convert|13|m|ft|abbr=off}} high {{circa|4000|3500}} BCE and remained the [[List of tallest freestanding structures#Timeline of world's tallest freestanding structures|world's tallest freestanding structure]] for over a thousand years until surpassed by the [[pyramid of Djoser]]. The design of [[Egyptian pyramids]] (especially the stepped designs of the oldest pyramids) may have been an evolution from the ziggurats built in Mesopotamia.
====Tells====
{{main|Tell (archaeology)}}
In order to harden mudbricks; they were baked out in the Sun to dry. These types of bricks are much less durable than oven-baked ones; so, buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resulting mounds are known as ''[[Tell (archaeology)|tells]]'', and are found throughout the Near East.
====Sites====
=====List=====
{{see|List of cities of the ancient Near East}}
{|class="wikitable sortable"border="1"style="width:100%;text-align:center;"
|+
!width="25%"|Ancient name
!width="25%"|Modern name
!width="25%"|[[É (temple)|Temple]]
!width="25%"|[[Tutelary deity]]
|-
|[[Eridu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉣𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044493# eridug<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Abu Shahrain''
|Eabzu<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒍪𒀊}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048643# e₂.abzu]}}}}
|[[Enki]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044306# <sup>d</sup>en.ki]}}}}
|-
|[[Kuara (Sumer)|Kuara]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀀𒄩𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045610# kuara₂<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell al-Lahm''
|
|[[Nergal]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒆧𒀕𒀕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046630# <sup>d</sup>nergalₓ(kiš.ab<sup>g</sup>)]}}}}
|-
|[[Ur]]
|''Tell al-Muqayyar''
|<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒆧𒉡𒅅}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044112# e₂.kiš.nu.ŋal₂]}}}}
|[[Sin (mythology)|Nannar]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒋀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046577# <sup>d</sup>nanna]}}}}
|-
|[[Kesh (Sumer)|Kesh]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒋙𒀭𒄲𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045503# keš₃<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|
|
|[[Ninhursag]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒄯𒊕}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0046862# <sup>d</sup>nin.ḫur.saŋ]}}}}
|-
|[[Larsa]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒌓𒀕𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0045754# larsam<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell as-Senkereh''
|Ebabbar<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒌓𒌓}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048647# e₂.babbar₂]}}}}
|[[Utu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒌓}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048408# <sup>d</sup>utu]}}}}
|-
|[[Uruk]]
|''Tell al-Warka''
|[[Eanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒀭𒈾}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043953# e₂.an.na]}}}}
|[[An (goddess)|An]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043344# an]}}}}
|-
|[[Bad-tibira]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂦𒁾𒉄𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043577# bad₃.tibira<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|
|Emush<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044194# e₂.muš₃]}}}}
|[[Dumuzid|Ama-ušumgal-ana]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂼𒃲𒁔}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0019231# <sup>d</sup>ama.ušumgal]}}}}
|-
|[[Lagash]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉢𒁓𒆷𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045714# lagaš<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell al-Hiba''
|[[Eninnu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒐐}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044298# e₂.ninnu]}}}}
|[[Ningirsu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒅁}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047129# <sup>d</sup>nin.urta]}}}}
|-
|[[Girsu]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒄈𒋢𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044935# ŋir₂.su<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Telloh''
|
|
|-
|[[Umma]]
|''Tell Jokha''
|Emah<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒈤}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044152# e₂.maḫ]}}}}
|[[Shara (god)|Shara]]
|-
|[[Zabala (Sumer)|Zabala]]||''Tell Ibzeikh''||Ezi-kalam-ma||
|-
|[[Nippur]]
|''Tell Nuffar''
|[[Ekur]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒆳}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044122# e₂.kur]}}}}
|[[Enlil]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒂗𒆤}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044332# <sup>d</sup>en.lil₂]}}}}
|-
|[[Shuruppak]]||''Tell Fara''||E-dimgalanna||[[Ninlil|Sud]]
|-
|[[Marad]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀫𒁕𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0046262# marad.da<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Wannat es-Sadum''
|
|
|-
|[[Adab (city)|Adab]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒌓𒉣𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044122# adab<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Bismaya''
|Eshar<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒊬}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044549# e₂.šar]}}}}
|[[Inanna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒈹}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045253# <sup>d</sup>inana]}}}}
|-
|[[Isin]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒅔𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045349# isin₂<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Ishan al-Bahriyat''
|E-ni-dub-bi
|[[Nintinugga]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀭𒊩𒌆𒁷?𒂵}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0047084# <sup>d</sup>nin.tin.ugₓ(ezenₓḫal).ga]}}}}
|-
|[[Kisurra]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆠𒋩𒊏}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0032289# <sup>ki</sup>sur.ra]}}}}
|''Tell Abu Hatab''
|
|
|-
|[[Abu Salabikh|Eresh]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒉀𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044489# ereš₂<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Abu Salabikh''
|
|[[Baal]]
|-
|[[Dilbat]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒌓𒉣𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0048635# dil.bat<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell ed-Duleim''
|E-ibe-anu
|[[Uras (mythology)|Urash]]
|-
|[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆷𒊏𒀝𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/o0045750# la.ra.ag<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|
|
|[[Pabilsaĝ]]
|-
|[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒆧𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0045588# kiš<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Uheimir''
|E-dub
|[[Zababa]]
|-
|[[Kutha]]||''Tell Ibrahim''||E-meslam||
|-
|[[Tell Uqair|Urum]]||||E-ab-lu-a||[[Sin (mythology)|Suen]]
|-
|[[Sippar]]||''Tell Abu Habbah''||E-babbar||[[Utu]]
|-
|[[Sippar-Amnanum]]||''Tell ed-Der''||||
|-
|[[Der (Sumer)|Der]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂦𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043905# durum<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''al-Badra''
|E-dim-gal-kalama
|[[Ištaran]]
|-
|[[Akshak]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒌔𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043220# akšak<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|
|
|
|-
|[[Akkad (city)|Akkad]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀀𒂵𒉈𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043186# a.ga.de₃<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|
|E-an-da-di-a
|
|-
|[[Tutub]]||''Tell Khafajah''||Temple of Nintu||[[Mami (goddess)|Nintu]]
|-
|[[Eshnunna]]<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒀊𒉣𒈾𒆠}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0043186# eš₃.nun.na<sup>ki</sup>]}}}}
|''Tell Asmar''
|Esikil<br>{{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|𒂍𒂖}}}}<br>{{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[http://oracc.org/epsd2/o0044525# e₂.sikil]}}}}
|[[Tishpak]] and [[Ninazu]]
|}

=====Map=====
{{Location map+|Iraq|width=775px|relief=yes|float=center|caption=A clickable, [[topographical map]] of the present-day [[Republic of Iraq]] detailing both: [[type sites|type]] and major [[archaeological sites]]—along with the locations of various ancient regions, kingdoms, hamlets, villages, towns, proto-cities, cities, and/or city-states—which may have been visited, interacted and/or traded with, colonized, invaded, conquered, and/or occupied by the Sumerians.|places=
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.946944|long=45.968889|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Adab (city)|Adab]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.29363244|long=44.482892|position=left|label_size=64|label=''[[Akkad (city)|Akkad?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.181528|long=44.699139|position=right|label_size=64|label=''[[Akshak|Akshak?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=37.7|long=45.366667|position=bottom|label_size=64|label=''[[Aratta|Aratta?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=35.456667|long=43.2625|position=top|label_size=64|label='''[[Assur]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.4871|long=48.3538|position=left|label_size=64|label=''[[Awan (ancient city)|Awan?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.379722|long=45.999722|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Bad-tibira]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.391997|long=44.341689|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Borsippa]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.123611|long=45.931389|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Der (Sumer)|Der]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.295556|long=44.466111|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Dilbat]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.815833|long=45.996111|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Eridu]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.484167|long=44.728333|position=top|label_size=64|label='''[[Eshnunna]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.562028|long=46.177583|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Girsu]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=35.369972|long=44.254917|position=right|label_size=64|label=''[[Hamazi|Hamazi?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.885|long=45.268611|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Isin]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.540278|long=44.604722|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.838056|long=45.480556|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Kisurra]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.833333|long=46.333333|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Kuara (Sumer)|Kuara]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.760028|long=44.612861|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Kutha]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.411389|long=46.407222|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Lagash]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.433333|long=45.933333|position=right|label_size=64|label=''[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak?]]''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.285833|long=45.853611|position=bottom|label_size=64|label='''[[Larsa]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.092778|long=44.783333|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Marad]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=34.549444|long=40.89|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Mari, Syria|Mari]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=36.667617|long=41.058644|position=top|label_size=64|label='''[[Tell Brak|Nagar]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=36.359444|long=43.152778|position=top|label_size=64|label='''[[Nineveh]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=32.126444|long=45.233381|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Nippur]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.777222|long=45.510833|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Shuruppak]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.058829|long=44.252153|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Sippar]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=33.1|long=44.29|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Sippar-Amnanum]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.61064791|long=45.93636502|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Umma]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=30.961653|long=46.105126|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Ur]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.324167|long=45.637222|position=left|label_size=64|label='''[[Uruk]]'''}}
{{Location map~|Iraq|lat=31.743333|long=45.876667|position=right|label_size=64|label='''[[Zabala (Sumer)|Zabala]]'''}}}}
==Technology==
Examples of Sumerian technology include: the wheel, cuneiform script, [[arithmetic]] and [[geometry]], [[irrigation]] systems, Sumerian boats, [[lunisolar calendar]], [[bronze]], [[leather]], [[saw]]s, [[chisel]]s, [[hammer]]s, [[brace (tool)|braces]], [[Bit (horse)|bits]], [[nail (engineering)|nails]], [[pin]]s, [[jewelry ring|rings]], [[hoe (tool)|hoes]], [[axe]]s, [[knife|knives]], [[lance]]points, [[arrow (weapon)|arrowheads]], [[sword]]s, [[adhesive|glue]], [[dagger]]s, [[waterskin]]s, bags, [[horse harness|harnesses]], [[armor]], [[quiver]]s, [[war chariot]]s, [[scabbard]]s, [[boot]]s, [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], [[harpoon]]s and beer.
The Sumerians had three main types of boats:
*clinker-built sailboats stitched together with hair, featuring [[bitumen]] waterproofing
*skin boats constructed from animal skins and reeds
*wooden-oared ships, sometimes pulled upstream by people and animals walking along the nearby banks
===Agriculture, domestication, and hunting===
====Agriculture====
{{main|Agriculture in ancient Mesopotamia}}
[[Agriculture]] depended heavily on [[irrigation]]. Irrigation was accomplished by the use of [[shaduf]], [[canals]], [[Channel (geography)|channels]], [[dyke (construction)|dykes]], [[weirs]], and [[reservoirs]]. The frequent, violent floods of the [[Tigris]] (and less so) of the [[Euphrates]] rivers meant that canals required frequent repair and continual removal of [[silt]]—and [[survey markers]] and [[boundary stones]] needed to be continually replaced. The government required individuals to work on the canals in a [[corvée]]; although, the rich were able to exempt themselves. The Mesopotamians practiced similar irrigation techniques as those used by [[ancient Egyptians]]. [[Anthropologists]] say that irrigation development was associated with [[urbanization]], and that 89% of the population lived in the cities.

[[Lower Mesopotamia]] is associated with intensive, irrigated, [[hydraulic agriculture]]; and, the use of the [[Ard (plough)#History|plough]] (both introduced from [[Upper Mesopotamia]]). The Sumerian people adopted a [[rural lifestyle]] perhaps as early as {{circa|5500|3300 BCE}}. Sumer demonstrated a number of core agricultural techniques, including: organized irrigation, large-scale intensive [[cultivation]] of land, [[mono-cropping]] (involving the use of [[plough agriculture]]); and, the use of an agricultural [[Division of labour|specialized labor force]] under bureaucratic control. The necessity to manage temple accounts with this organization led to the development of [[history of writing|writing]] ({{circa|3500|3100 BCE}}).

Mesopotamian houses had enclosed gardens with trees and other plants; [[wheat]] ([[emmer]] and [[einkorn]]) and probably other [[cereals]] were sown in the fields. Plants were also grown in pots or vases. Mesopotamians also grew [[barley]] ([[two-rowed barley|two-rowed]]), [[pulses]], [[beans]], and [[spices]] ([[lentils]], [[chickpeas]], and [[Mustard plant|mustard]]), [[fruits]] ([[apples]], [[Date (fruit)|dates]], and [[figs]]), and [[vegetables]] ([[onions]], [[garlic]], [[lettuce]], and [[leeks]]). Sumer was among the earliest known [[beer]]-drinking societies. Cereals were plentiful and were the key ingredient in their early brew. They brewed multiple kinds of beer consisting of wheat, barley, and mixed grain beers.
====Animal husbandry====
{{see|Animal husbandry}}
The ''[[Standard of Ur]]'' (dated to {{circa|2600|2350 BCE}}) suggests that [[bovids]] ([[Arabi sheep|sheep]], [[goats]], and [[cattle]]) and [[suids]] ([[Domestic pig|pigs]]) were domesticated to be used as [[livestock]]—raised as [[draught animals]] and/or to produce [[commodities]] ([[wool]], [[milk]], [[meat]], and [[manure]]). Mesopotamians also used both [[War animals|war]] and [[pack animals|pack]] animals ([[equids]] such as: [[Asiatic wild ass]]es, [[African wild ass]]es, [[donkeys]], [[crossbreeds]], and/or [[List of genetic hybrids#Phylum Chordata|hybrids]]). A [[dog breed]] of [[sighthound]] ([[saluki]]) appeared in Mesopotamia {{circa|7000|2000 BCE}}. Sumerians hunted both [[small game#Asia|small]] ([[European hare|rabbits]]), and [[Big-game hunting|big]] game ([[Syrian wild ass|wild asses]], [[wild boars]], [[Mouflon|wild sheep]], [[wild goats]], and [[Persian fallow deer|deer]]); as well as, catching [[fish]] and [[List of birds of Iraq|fowl]]. [[Waterfowl]] such as [[ducks]] and [[geese]] were kept in captivity.
<gallery>
File:Standard of ur peace 2013.JPG|A photographic image detailing the "peace" panels on the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Etendard d'Ur - bélier.jpg|Detail of a man leading a ram on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Etendard d'Ur - chèvres.jpg|Detail of a man and three goats on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Etendard d'Ur - bovin.jpg|Detail of two men leading a bovid on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Etendard d'Ur - ânes.jpg|Detail of two men leading an equid on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Etendard d'Ur - porteurs.jpg|Detail of men carrying offerings on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Standard of Ur - feast.jpg|Detail of a feast on the peace panels of the ''Standard of Ur''.
File:Standard of Ur - Peace - Detail Top Right.jpg
</gallery>
====Tools and utensils====
Knives, drills, wedges and an instrument that looks like a saw were all known.
<gallery>
File:Copper alloy adze head - Ur RT.jpg|Two [[adze]]heads made out of a copper alloy discovered in the [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]].
File:Gold chisels recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (32778191113).jpg|Gold [[chisels]]
File:Gold tweezers recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE.jpg|Gold [[tweezers]]
File:Gold Cup & Bowl Ur Royal Tombs excavations.jpg|Gold cup and bowl
File:Shell-shaped cosmetic container from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE Gold.jpg|Gold shell-shaped cosmetic container
File:Sumerian Fluted Goblet from the tomb of Queen Puabi Electrum 2500 BCE.jpg|[[Electrum]] fluted [[goblet]]
File:Gold and lapis lazuli hair pin recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE (32809278663).jpg|Gold [[hairpin]]
File:Gold chain recovered from the royal cemetery of Ur, Iraq 2550-2450 BCE.jpg|Gold [[chain]]
</gallery>
==War and peace==
{{main|Warfare in Sumer}}
===Military systems===
{{see|Sumer#Military}}
====Weapons and armor====
[[Blunt instrument]]s (such as [[Club (weapon)|clubs]], [[Stick-fighting|staves]], [[Mace (bludgeon)|maces]], and [[hammers]]), [[pole weapons]] (e.g. [[spears]] and [[scythes]]), [[bladed weapons]] (like [[Battle axe|axe]]s, [[Knife|knives]], [[dagger#Antiquity|daggers]], and [[Bronze Age sword|sickle-swords]]), and [[ranged weapons]] (including [[javelins]], [[throwing sticks]], [[throwing axes]], [[Sling (weapon)|slings]], [[bow and arrows]]) were all employed in war. Soldiers wore [[helmets]] composed of either [[copper]] or [[bronze]]; additionally, [[armor]] ([[cloaks]] studded in metal discs) and [[shields]].
<gallery>
File:Copper alloy axe - Ur RT.jpg|Copper alloy axe
File:Copper Alloy Axe Head.jpg|Copper alloy crescent-shaped axehead
File:Whetstone & Copper Alloy Vessel, Spear, Bow Ends.jpg|Gold spearhead and copper alloy bow ends
File:Weapons from tomb PG 789.jpg|Copper alloy dagger and silver spearhead
File:Tools & Weapons from Ur.jpg
File:Copper alloy lance heads PG580.jpg|Copper alloy lanceheads
File:Pairs of copper alloy harpoons PG580.jpg|Copper alloy harpoons
File:Gold spear head PG580 BM.jpg|Gold spearhead
</gallery>
===Military history of Mesopotamia===
{{see|History of Sumer}}
====Warfare in Lower Mesopotamia====
{{see|Lower Mesopotamia}}
=====Lagash-Umma border conflict=====
{{see|Lagash#Border conflict with Umma (c.2500-2300 BCE)}}
The first war in Sumerian [[recorded history]] was between the two city-states of [[Lagash]] and [[Umma]] (an intermittent, [[border war]] which may have lasted nearly 200 years from {{circa|2525|2342 BCE}}) as described on the ''[[Stele of the Vultures]]''. The [[stele]] shows the king of Lagash ([[Eannatum]] {{reign|c. 2457|c. 2425|era=BCE}}) leading an army (consisting mainly of [[infantrymen#History|infantrymen]]). The infantrymen were primarily armed with [[spears]], carried [[wooden]]/[[wicker]], rectangular [[shields]], and wore: [[caps]] (made out of [[leather]]) underneath [[helmets]] composed of either [[copper]] or one of its [[copper alloy|alloys]] (e.g. [[arsenic]] for [[arsenical bronze]], or [[tin]]). Depictions of the [[light infantry#Ancient history|light infantry]]men show them wearing: [[kaunakes]] (short [[woollen]] [[mantle (clothing)|mantles]] with tufts of feathers sown onto them and worn like unisex [[wrapper (clothing)|wraparound skirts]]); as well as, [[armor]] ([[cloaks]] of [[sheepskin]] on their backs studded in metal discs or plates), and no [[body armor]] protecting their torsos. The spearmen are shown arranged in what resembles the [[phalanx formation]], which requires training and discipline; this implies that the Sumerians may have made use of professional soldiers.

The armies of the city-states could each have up to 3,600—5,400 soldiers. The organization of their armies was based on multiples of 6 (60, 120, 600, etc.) These large armies would consist of many [[military units]]. One military unit known as the ''nu.banda'' contained anywhere from 60—120 ''erin'' (''[[conscripts]]'', ''[[laborers]]'', or ''[[soldiers]]'') and may have been led by an ''ugula'' (''[[overseer]]'' or ''[[commander]]''). Other known units include the ''[[shublugal]].''

To support the main army there would be four-wheeled [[war wagons]] each with two-man crews. One crewman would be the driver and the other; a soldier (armed with a [[lance]] or [[battle axe]]). Each wagon was pulled by four [[Asiatic wild ass]]es. These early [[wheeled vehicle]]s functioned less effectively in combat than did the much later [[chariots]], and some have suggested that these wagons served primarily as transports. The cabless cart was composed of a [[basket|woven basket]] and the wheels had solid three-piece designs.

The [[Warfare in Sumer|near-constant warfare]] among the city-states of Sumer helped the Mesopotamians develop their military technology and techniques to a high level. Sumerian city-states were surrounded by [[defensive walls]]. The Sumerians engaged in [[siege warfare]] between their cities; but, the mudbrick walls were able to deter some foes. Soldiers would besiege cities using [[battering rams]] and [[Sapping#Pre-gunpowder|sappers]].
<gallery>
File:Stele of Vultures detail 01b.jpg|''[[Stele of Vultures]]''
File:Stele of Vultures detail 01-transparent.png|''[[Stele of Vultures]]''
File:Stele of Vultures detail 01 reverse.jpg|''[[Stele of Vultures]]''
File:Stele of Vultures detail 02.jpg|''[[Stele of Vultures]]''
File:Stele of Vultures detail 03.jpg|''[[Stele of Vultures]]''
File:King at war leading soldiers and war chariot Standard of Ur.jpg|''[[Standard of Ur]]''
File:Standard of Ur - War - Detail Middle Left.jpg|''[[Standard of Ur]]''
File:Standard of Ur - War - Detail Middle Center.jpg|''[[Standard of Ur]]''
</gallery>
====Warfare in Upper Mesopotamia====
{{see|Upper Mesopotamia}}
=====Mari-Ebla war=====
{{see|Mari, Syria#Mari-Ebla war}}
==History of Mesopotamia (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BCE)==
{{see|History of Mesopotamia#Early Dynastic period}}
{{see also|Iraq#Ancient Iraq}}
===Sumerian civilization (c. 5500 – c. 1792 BCE)===
{{main|Sumerian civilization}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name            =([[Cuneiform#Archaic cuneiform (circa 3000 BC)|Sumerian]]): {{cuneiform|sux|{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|[[Wikt:𒆠|𒆠]]}}{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|[[Wikt:𒂗|𒂗]]}}{{Script/Cuneiform|sum|[http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e2182.html# 𒄀]}}}}<br><span style="font-weight: normal">([[Transliteration of cuneiform|Transliterated]]): {{transl|Xsux|{{smallcaps|[[Ki (earth)|ki]].[[EN (cuneiform)|én]].[http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/epsd/epsd/e2182.html# ĝir<sub>15</sub>]}}}}</span><br/>{{native name|akk|{{Script/Cuneiform|akk|𒋗𒈨𒊒}}}}<br/><span style="font-weight: normal">{{transl|akk|Šumeru}}</span>
|conventional_long_name =[[Sumer]]
|common_name            =[[Sumer]]
|era                    =
*[[3rd millennium BC|Third millennium BCE]]
*[[Early Bronze Age III]] (EBAIII)
*[[Ancient Near East]] (ANE)
*[[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)]] (ED)
|status                 =[[Civilization]]
|empire                 =[[Akkadian empire]]
|government_type        =
*[[Hegemony]]
*[[Confederacy]]
*[[Oligarchy]]
*[[History of democracy#Historic origins|Proto-democracy]]
*[[Theocracy]]
*[[Monarchy|Primitive monarchy]]
|event_start            =Developed
|year_start             ={{circa|5500 BCE}}
|event_end              =Transitioned
|year_end               ={{circa|1792 BCE}}
|year_exile_start       ={{circa|2334 BCE}}
|year_exile_end         ={{circa|2112 BCE}}
|p1                     =Ubaid culture
|p2                     =Halaf culture
|p3                     =Samarra culture
|p4                     =Hassuna culture
|s1                     =Akkadian empire
|s2                     =Elam
|s3                     =Amurru kingdom
|image_map              =Ancient Near East 2500BC.svg
|image_map2             =Ancient Near East 2400BC.svg
|capital                =
No single/fixed capital
*[[Nippur]] ([[holy city]])
*[[Eridu]] ({{circa|2900 BCE}})
*[[Bad-tibira]]
*[[Larak (Sumer)|Larak]]
*[[Sippar]] ({{circa|2820|2810 BCE}})
*[[Shuruppak]] ({{circa|2810|2800 BCE}})
*[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] ({{circa|2800|2670 BCE}})
*[[Uruk]] ({{circa|2670|2620 BCE}})
*[[Ur]] ({{circa|2620|2550 BCE}})
*[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] ({{circa|2550|2500 BCE}})
*[[Ur]] ({{circa|2500|2485 BCE}})
*[[Awan (ancient city)|Awan]] ({{circa|2485|2455 BCE}})
*[[Lagash]] ({{circa|2455|2450 BCE}})
*[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] ({{circa|2450|2445 BCE}})
*[[Hamazi]] ({{circa|2445|2440 BCE}})
*[[Uruk]] ({{circa|2440|2435 BCE}})
*[[Lagash]] ({{circa|2435|2430 BCE}})
*[[Ur]] ({{circa|2430|2425 BCE}})
*[[Mari, Syria|Mari]] ({{circa|2425|2400 BCE}})
*[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] ({{circa|2400|2390 BCE}})
*[[Akshak]] ({{circa|2390|2380 BCE}})
*[[Adab (city)|Adab]] ({{circa|2380|2370 BCE}})
*[[Mari, Syria|Mari]] ({{circa|2370|2360 BCE}})
*[[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] ({{circa|2360|2355 BCE}})
*[[Uruk]] ({{circa|2355|2334 BCE}})
*[[Akkad (city)|Akkad]] ({{circa|2334|2193 BCE}})
*[[Gutium]] ({{circa|2193|2190 BCE}})
*[[Akkad (city)|Akkad]] ({{circa|2190|2154 BCE}})
*[[Uruk]] ({{circa|2154|2147 BCE}})
*[[Gutium]] ({{circa|2147|2124 BCE}})
*[[Uruk]] ({{circa|2124|2112 BCE}})
*[[Ur]] ({{circa|2112|2004 BCE}})
*[[Isin]] ({{circa|2004|1794 BCE}})
|common_languages       = 
*[[Proto-Euphratean language|Proto-Euphratean]] (hypothetical, native language)
*[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ([[sprachbund]])
*[[Cuneiform#Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform|Sumero-Akkadian]] ([[lingua franca]])
*[[East Semitic|Kishite/Old Akkadian]] (foreign language)
*[[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] (foreign language)
*[[Elamite language|Elamite]] (foreign language)
}}
====Ur (c. 3800 – c. 500 BCE)====
{{main|Ur}}
=====Ur I dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2400 BCE)=====
{{main|First dynasty of Ur}}
The [[first dynasty of Ur]] is dated to {{circa|2600|2350}} BCE. It was preceded by the first dynasty of Uruk on the ''[[Sumerian King List]]'' (''SKL''). Only four of the final kings of the first dynasty of Ur are mentioned on the ''SKL''. The first dynasty may have been preceded by one other dynasty of Ur unnamed on the ''SKL'' which had extensive influence over the area of Sumer, and apparently led a union of [[lower Mesopotamia]]n polities. Ur may have had <6,000 citizens {{circa|2800}} BCE.

[[Ur-Pabilsag]] is the earliest known ruler of Ur said to have held the Sumerian title for ''[[lugal|king]]''. He was preceded by his father [[A-Imdugud]] (who ruled over Ur with the Sumerian title for ''[[Ensi (Sumerian)|governor]]'') and succeeded by his son [[Meskalamdug]] (who {{reign|c. 2600|c. 2550|era=BCE}} as a king). [[Mesannepada]] ({{reign|single=c. 2500|era=BCE}}) is the first king of Ur listed on the ''SKL''. Two other rulers earlier than Mesannepada are known from other sources, namely [[Puabi]] (probably {{reign|single=c. 2550|era=BCE}} with the Sumerian title for ''[[NIN (cuneiform)|queen]]'') and [[Akalamdug]] ({{reign|1=c. 2600|2=c. 2550|3=c. 2550|4=c. 2500|era=BCE}} as king). It would seem that both Akalamdug and Mesannepada may have been sons of Meskalamdug, according to an inscription found on a bead in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] and Meskalamdug may have been the true founder of the first dynasty.

[[Mesilim]] ({{reign|c. 2550|c. 2500|era=BCE}}) may have enjoyed suzerainty over both Ur and [[Adab (city)|Adab]]. He is also mentioned in some of the earliest monuments as arbitrating a border dispute between [[Lagash]] and [[Umma]]. Mesilim's placement before, during, or after the reign of Mesannepada in Ur is uncertain, owing to the lack of other synchronous names in the inscriptions, and his absence from the ''SKL''. Some have suggested that Mesilim and Mesannepada were in fact one and the same; however, others have disputed this theory. Both Mesilim and Mesannepada also seem to have subjected [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], thereafter assuming the title ''[[King of the Universe|king of Kish]]'' for themselves. The title king of Kish would be used by many kings of the preeminent dynasties for some time afterward.

[[Mesannepada]] ({{reign|single=c. 2500|era=BCE}}) is the first [[lugal|king]] of Ur listed on the ''SKL''. Mesannepada may have been a son of king [[Meskalamdug]], according to an inscription found on a bead in [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], and Meskalamdug may have been the true founder of the first dynasty. Some have suggested that [[Mesilim]] and Mesannepada were in fact one and the same; however, others have disputed this theory. Both Mesilim and Mesannepada also seem to have subjected Kish, thereafter assuming the title ''[[King of the Universe|king of Kish]]'' for themselves. The title ''king of Kish'' would be used by many kings of the preeminent dynasties for some time afterward.

The [[Royal Cemetery at Ur]] held the tombs of several rulers of the first dynasty of Ur. The tombs are particularly lavish, and testify to the wealth of the first dynasty. One of the most famous tombs is that of Puabi. The artifacts found in the royal tombs of the dynasty show that foreign trade was particularly active during this period, with many materials coming from foreign lands, such as [[carnelian]] likely coming from the [[Indus]] or [[Iran]], [[lapis Lazuli]] from the [[Badakhshan]] area of [[Afghanistan]], silver from [[Turkey]], copper from [[Oman]], and gold from several locations such as [[Egypt]], [[Nubia]], [[Turkey]] or [[Iran]]. Carnelian beads from the Indus were found in Ur tombs dating to 2600-2450, in an example of Indus-Mesopotamia relations. In particular, carnelian beads with an etched design in white were probably imported from the Indus Valley, and made according to a technique developed by the [[Harappa]]ns. These materials were used into the manufacture of beautiful objects in the workshops of Ur.

The Ur I dynasty had enormous wealth as shown by the lavishness of its tombs. This was probably due to the fact that Ur acted as the main harbour for trade with [[India]], which put her in a strategic position to import and trade vast quantities of gold, carnelian or lapis lazuli. In comparison, the burials of the kings of Kish were much less lavish. High-prowed Summerian ships may have traveled as far as [[Meluhha]], thought to be the Indus region, for trade.
<gallery>
File:Detail. Part of the so-called Banquet Plaques. Beer was a common daily dietary staple in ancient Mesopotamia. From Ur, Iraq. Early Dynastic Period, 2900-2350 BCE. Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg
File:Silver model of a boat, tomb PG 789, Royal Cemetery of UR, 2600-2500 BCE.jpg
File:Carved stone with handle Ur 2500 BCE.jpg
File:Statuette of a Sumerian female worshiper from Ur, Iraq.jpg
File:Plaque with woman face BM 122113.jpg
File:Meskiagnun Gansaman bowl 122255.jpg
File:Frise laiterie - préparation laitages.jpg
File:Frise laiterie - étable.jpg
</gallery>
=====Ur II dynasty (c. 2400 – c. 2340 BCE)=====
The rulers from the second dynasty of Ur may have {{reign|c. 2400|c. 2340|era=BCE}}. It was preceded by the second dynasty of Uruk on the ''SKL''. Only two, three, or four rulers are mentioned: Nanni, Meskiagnun (son of Nanni), and two unnamed rulers with unknown fathers. Likewise on the ''SKL'': the second dynasty of Ur was succeeded by a dynasty from [[Adab (city)|Adab]]. Little more is otherwise known about this dynasty; in fact, the once supposed second dynasty of Ur may have never existed.
====Uruk (c. 5000 BCE – c. 700 CE)====
{{main|Uruk}}
=====Uruk II dynasty (c. 2500 – c. 2355 BCE)=====
[[Enshakushanna]] ({{reign|1=c. 2440|2=c. 2430|3=c. 2430|4=c. 2400|era=BCE}}) was said to have reigned for sixty years on the ''SKL''. An inscription stated that his father was "Elili" (possibly [[Elulu]] of the first dynasty of Ur). He is said to have conquered Ur, [[Akshak]], Kish (where he overthrew Enbi-Ishtar), [[Akkad (city)|Akkad]], Hamazi, and Nippur—effectively claiming hegemony over all of Sumer and adopting the title ''[[King of Sumer and Akkad|Lord of Sumer and King of all the Land]]''. He was preceded by three rulers who {{reign|1=c. 2500|2=c. 2440|3=c. 2450|4=c. 2430|era=BCE}}: Lugalnamniršumma, Lugalsilâsi, and Urzage (all of whom assumed the title ''king of Kish''; nonetheless, neither are mentioned on the ''SKL''). He was succeeded by [[Lugalkinishedudu]] ({{reign|1=c. 2430|2=c. 2365|3=c. 2400|4=c. 2350|era=BCE}}).

Lugalkinishedudu may have retained some of the power inherited by his predecessors—which included rule over Uruk, Ur, and assumed the title ''king of Kish''. The oldest known written mention of a peace treaty between two kings is on a [[clay nail]] found in [[Girsu]], commemorating the alliance between Lugalkinishedudu and [[Entemena]] of [[Lagash]].
<gallery>
File:Detail, limestone foundation peg of Lugal-kisal-si, from Uruk, Iraq. C. 2380 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg
File:Limestone foundation peg of Lugal-kisal-si, from Uruk, Iraq. C. 2380 BCE. Pergamon Museum.jpg
File:Limestone statue of Satam, Early Dynastic Period III, c. 2400 BC.jpg
File:Male bust Louvre AO10921.jpg
File:Satam Louvre AO5681.jpg
File:Foundation nail Entemena Louvre AO22934.jpg
File:Vase inscription of Lugalkiginedudu.jpg
File:BM 91013 Tablet dedicated by Lugal-tarsi.jpg
</gallery>
=====Uruk III dynasty (c. 2355 – c. 2330 BCE)=====
{{see|History of Sumer#Empire of Lugal-zage-si of Uruk}}
Urukagina was overthrown and his city Lagash captured by [[Lugalzagesi]] ({{reign|1=c. 2355|2=c. 2330|3=c. 2340|4=c. 2316|era=BCE}}), the ''governor'' of Umma. Lugalzagesi also took Ur, Adab, Larsa, Nippur, Kish, [[Zabala (Sumer)|Zabala]], Ki’ana, and made Uruk his capital. In a long inscription that he made engraved on hundreds of stone vases dedicated to the god [[Enlil]] of Nippur, he boasts that his kingdom extended ''"from the [[Persian Gulf|Lower Sea]], along the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], to the [[Mediterranean sea|Upper Sea]]."'' He in turn was overthrown by [[Sargon of Akkad]].
<gallery>
File:Lamentation about the ruin of Lagash, Uru-Ka-gina period, circa 2350 BCE Tello, ancient Girsu.jpg
File:Nippur vase of Lugalzagesi.jpg
File:Lugalzagesi king of Uruk king of the Land son of Ukush.jpg
File:Lugalzagesi ensi Ummaki (with transcription).jpg
</gallery>
====Lagash (c. 2600 – c. 2030 BCE)====
{{main|Lagash}}
=====Lagash I dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2342 BCE)=====
{{see|Sumer#1st Dynasty of Lagash}}
The rulers of this dynasty are believed to have {{reign|1=c. 2570|2=c. 2350|3=c. 2494|4=c. 2342|era=BCE}}. Although the first dynasty of [[Lagash]] has become well-attested through several important monuments, many archaeological finds, and well-known based off of mentions on inscriptions contemporaneous with other dynasties from the EDIII period; it was not inscribed onto the ''SKL''. One fragmentary supplement names the rulers of Lagash. The first dynasty of Lagash preceded the dynasty of Akkad in a time in which Lagash exercised considerable influence in the region.

[[En-hegal|Enhengal]] ({{reign|1=c. 2570|2=c. 2510|3=c. 2530|4=c. 2510|era=BCE}}) is recorded as the first known ruler of Lagash, being tributary to Uruk. His successor [[Lugalshaengur]] ({{reign|c. 2510|c. 2494|era=BCE}}) was similarly tributary to Mesilim. Following the hegemony of Mesannepada, [[Ur-Nanshe]] ({{reign|c. 2494|c. 2465|era=BC}}) succeeded Lugalshaengur as the new high priest of Lagash and achieved independence, making himself king. He defeated Ur and captured the king of Umma, Pabilgaltuk. In the ruins of a building attached by him to the temple of [[Ningirsu]], [[terracotta]] ''[[bas relief]]s'' of the king and his sons have been found, as well as onyx plates and lions' heads in onyx reminiscent of [[Art of ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian work. One inscription states that ships of [[Dilmun]] (Bahrain) brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands. He was succeeded by his son [[Akurgal]] ({{reign|1=c. 2466|2=c. 2457|3=c. 2464|4=c. 2455|era=BCE}}).

Although short-lived, one of the first empires known to history was that of [[Eannatum]] ({{reign|1=c. 2457|2=c. 2425|3=c. 2455|4=c. 2425|era=BCE}}), grandson of Ur-Nanshe, who made himself master of the whole of the country of Sumer by annexing the cities of Uruk, Ur, Nippur, Akshak, and Larsa. [[Umma]] was made tributary (after he vanquished [[Ush, king of Umma|Ush]])—a certain amount of grain being levied upon each person in it, that had to be paid into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god [[Ningirsu]]; in addition, Eannatum's campaigns extended beyond the confines of Sumer as he overran a part of Elam, took the city of Az on the Persian gulf, and exacted tribute as far as Mari. Many of the realms he conquered were often in revolt; furthermore, he seems to have used terror as a matter of policy. His ''[[Stele of the Vultures]]'' depicts vultures pecking at the severed heads and other body parts of his enemies. During his reign, temples and palaces were repaired or erected at Lagash and elsewhere; the town of Nina—that probably gave its name to the later [[Niniveh]]—was rebuilt, and canals and reservoirs were excavated. He also annexed the kingdom of Kish; however, it recovered its independence after his death. His empire collapsed shortly after his death.

Eannatum was succeeded by his brother, [[Enannatum I]] ({{reign|1=c. 2424|2=c. 2421|3=c. 2425|4=c. 2405|era=BCE}}). During his rule, Umma once more asserted independence under [[Ur-Lumma]], who attacked Lagash unsuccessfully. Ur-Lumma was replaced by a priest-king, [[Il, king of Umma|Illi]], who also attacked Lagash.

His son and successor [[Entemena]] ({{reign|1=c. 2420|2=c. 2393|3=c. 2405|4=c. 2375|era=BCE}}) restored the prestige of Lagash. Illi of Umma was subdued, with the help of his ally Lugal-kinishe-dudu of Uruk, successor to Enshakushana and also on the king-list. Lugal-kinishe-dudu seems to have been the prominent figure at the time, since he also claimed to rule Kish and Ur. A silver vase dedicated by Entemena to his god is now in the Louvre. A frieze of lions devouring ibexes and deer, incised with great artistic skill, runs round the neck, while the eagle crest of Lagash adorns the globular part. The vase is a proof of the high degree of excellence to which the goldsmith's art had already attained. A vase of [[calcite]], also dedicated by Entemena, has been found at Nippur. After Entemena, a series of weak, corrupt rulers is attested for Lagash: [[Enannatum II]], [[Enentarzi]], Enlitarzi, and [[Lugalanda]] who altogether {{reign|1=c. 2392|2=c. 2361|3=c. 2375|4=c. 2352|era=BCE}}. The last of these, [[Urukagina]] ({{reign|1=c. 2361|2=c. 2350|3=c. 2352|4=c. 2342|era=BCE}}), was known for his judicial, social, and economic reforms (as part of the ''Code of Urukagina''), and his may well be the first legal code known to have existed.

Later, [[Lugal-Zage-Si]], the priest-king of Umma, overthrew the primacy of the Lagash dynasty in the area, then conquered Uruk, making it his capital, and claimed an empire extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He was the last ethnically Sumerian king before [[Sargon of Akkad]].
<gallery>
File:Brick of Eannatum-AO 351-IMG 9167-white.jpg
File:Cone fragment-AO 12779-IMG 9171-white.jpg
File:Cone fragment-AO 4442-AO 4597-IMG 9169-white.jpg
File:2015-12 Galet A de fondation d'Eanatum AO 2677 (2).jpg
File:Clay tablet mentioning the name of Eannatum, prince of Lagash. From Iraq, c. 2470 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg
File:Clay Votive Brick of Eannatum, Ruler of Lagash, Inscribed in Sumerian, Mid-3rd Millennium BC (43220061931).jpg
File:Detail. Cuneiform inscription on a limestone object from Girsu, Iraq, mentioning the name of Eannatum (Eannadou), ruler of Lagash, 2500-2400 BCE. Ancient Orient Museum, Istanbul.jpg
File:Eannatum inscription (British Museum).jpg
</gallery>
====Umma (c. 2600 – c. 2022 BCE)====
{{main|Umma}}
=====Umma I dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2355 BCE)=====
Umma was an ancient city in Sumer best known for its century-long border war against Lagash over the [[Gu-Edin]] plain between Umma's earliest known ruler [[Pabilgagaltuku]] ({{reign|1=c. 2600|2=c. 2520|3=c. 2535|4=c. 2455|era=BCE}}) and Lagash's Ur-Nanshe. Pabilgagaltuku was subsequently defeated, seized, vanquished by Ur-Nanshe and succeeded by a ''governor'' [[Ush, king of Umma|Ush]] ({{reign|1=c. 2520|2=c. 2441|3=c. 2455|4=c. 2445|era=BC}}). Ush is mentioned on the ''Cone of Entemana'' as having violated the frontier with Lagash—a frontier which had been solemly established by ''king'' Mesilim of Kish. It is thought that Ush was severely defeated by Eannatum. The ''[[Stele of the Vultures]]'' suggests that Ush was killed in a rebellion in his capital city of Umma after the loss of 3,600 soldiers on the field.
<gallery>
File:Stone tablet re Il, king of Umma, c. 2400 BC - Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago - DSC07155 (orientation).jpg
File:Ur-Lumma, king of Umma, son of En-a-Kale tablet.jpg
File:Ush ensi Uma-ki.jpg
File:Votive plaque of a beard-IMG 6857.JPG
File:Diorite statue of Lupad, official in town of Umma, Early Dynastic Period III, c. 2400 BC.jpg
File:Upad of Umma.jpg
File:Gishakidu vase.jpg
File:This cuneiform text gives the city of Umma's account of its long-running border dispute with Lagash. Circa 2350 BCE. From Umma, Iraq. The British Museum, London.jpg
</gallery>
====Adab (c. 2600 – c. 1760 BCE)====
{{main|Adab (city)}}
=====Adab dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 1760 BCE)=====
[[Nin-kisalsi]] ({{reign|single=c. 2550|era=BCE}}) was a governor of [[Adab (city)|Adab]] and probably the suzerain of Mesilim. Nin-kisalsi may have been succeeded by [[Lugaldalu]]. Following this period, the region of Mesopotamia seems to have come under the sway of [[Lugalannemundu]] ({{reign|single=c. 2350|era=BCE}}). According to inscriptions, king [[Lugalannemundu]] of Adab is said to have subjugated the ''[[four corners of the world|Four Quarters of the World]]''. However, his empire fell apart with his death; the ''SKL'' indicates that Mari in upper Mesopotamia was the next city to hold the hegemony.
===Elamite civilization (c. 3200 BCE – c. 224 CE)===
{{main|Elamite civilization}}
<gallery>
File:Proto-Elamite vase, 2600-2300 BCE, found in Ur.jpg
</gallery>
====Awan (c. 2600 – c. 2100 BCE)====
{{main|Awan (ancient city)}}
=====Awan dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2100 BCE)=====
{{main|Awan dynasty}}
According to the SKL: a [[Awan dynasty|dynasty from Awan]] exerted hegemony in Sumer after defeating the first dynasty of Ur. It mentions three Awanite kings, who supposedly reigned for a total of 356 years. Their names have not survived on the extant copies, apart from the partial name of the third king, "Ku-ul...", who it says ruled for 36 years. A separate regnal list discovered in [[Susa]] names an additional twelve [[List of rulers of Elam|Elamite rulers]] beside the three on the ''SKL'': Peli, Tata, Ukku-Tanhish, Hishutash, Shushun-Tarana, Napi-Ilhush, Kikkutanteimti, [[Luh-ishan]], Hishep-Ratep, Helu, [[Khita]], and [[Puzur-Inshushinak]]. Some have suggested that the first three on the ''Susanian dynastic list'' may have been the same three on the ''SKL'' said to have ruled over both [[Elam]] and Sumer.

The dynasty of Awan was the first from Elam of which anything is known today. The dynasty corresponds to the Old Elamite period ({{circa|2700|1600}} BCE). [[Awan (ancient city)|Awan]] was a city-state or possibly a region of Elam with an uncertain location, but it has been variously conjectured to have been in the: [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]], [[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah]], [[Lorestan Province|Lorestan]], [[Ilam Province|Ilam]], and/or [[Fars Province|Fars]] provinces of [[Iran]]. This dynasty may have exerted hegemony in Sumer after defeating Ur at some point {{circa|2600|2400}} BCE, and may have continued ruling independently over Elam from Awan up until {{circa|2220|2100}} BCE after losing the hegemony. This information is not considered reliable, but it does suggest that Awan had political importance in the 3rd millennium BCE.

As there are very few other sources for this period, most of these names are not certain. Little more of these rulers' reigns is known, but the Elamites were likely major rivals of neighboring Sumer from remotest antiquity; they were said to have been defeated by Enmebaragesi, who is the earliest archaeologically attested Sumerian king, as well as by a later monarch, [[Enannatum I]]. It is also known that the Elamites carried out incursions into Mesopotamia, where they ran up against the most powerful city-states of this period, Kish and Lagash. One such incident is recorded in a tablet addressed to Enetarzi, a minor ruler or governor of Lagash, testifying that a party of 600 Elamites had been intercepted and defeated while attempting to abscond from the port with plunder.

Luh-ishan ({{reign|1=c. 2350|2=c. 2331|3=c. 2350|4=c. 2320|era=BCE}}) is the eighth ruler on the ''Susanian dynastic list'', while his father's name "Hishiprashini" is a variant of that of the ninth listed ruler, Hishepratep—indicating either a different individual or (if the same)—that the order of rulers on the ''Susanian dynastic list'' has been jumbled. Events become a little clearer at the time of the [[Akkadian empire]], when historical texts tell of campaigns carried out by the kings of [[Akkad (city)|Akkad]] on the [[Iranian plateau]]. Luh-ishan was a vassal of [[Sargon of Akkad]] around the time that Sargon boasted of defeating Luh-ishan. Sargon's son and successor ([[Rimush]]) is said to have conquered Elam, defeating its king named Emahsini. Khita may have signed a peace treaty with [[Naram-Suen of Akkad]] {{circa|2280}} BCE.

After the death of Emahsini, Elam became a vassal state ruled by several Akkadian governors. Among these governors were: [[Eshpum]], [[Epirmupi]], and [[Ili-ishmani]]. The last two ruled with both the Sumerian title for ''governor'' and the Akkadian title for ''[[Shakkanakku|military governor]]''. They {{reign|1=c. 2300|2=c. 2153|3=c. 2270|4=c. 2154|era=BCE}}.
====Hamazi (c. 2600 – c. 2010 BCE)====
{{main|Hamazi}}
=====Hamazi dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2010 BCE)=====
[[Hamazi]] first came to the attention of archaeologists with the discovery of a vase with an inscription in very archaic cuneiform commemorating the victory of [[Uhub]] ({{reign|c. 2570|c. 2550|era=BCE}} as an early ruler of Kish) over Hamazi, resulting in speculation that Hamazi was to be identified with [[Carchemish]] (in Syria). Its exact location is unknown; but, it's now generally considered to have been located somewhere along the vicinity of the Diyala river and/or the western region of the [[Zagros mountains]]—possibly near [[Nuzi]] (in Iraq) or [[Hamadan]] (in Iran). The earliest mention of Hamazi is on the [[Bowl of Utu]] (dated to c. 3245, 2750, or 2600 BCE). It was also mentioned in two legends: ''Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta'' and ''Enmerkar and En-suhgir-ana''.

A copy of a diplomatic message sent from [[Irkab-Damu]] ({{reign|single=c. 2340|era=BCE}} as the ''[[List of kings of Ebla|malikum]]'' of Ebla) to Zizi ({{reign|single=c. 2450|era=BCE}} as a ruler of Hamazi) was found among the [[Ebla tablets]]. According to the ''SKL'', king Hadanish of Hamazi ({{reign|c. 2450|c. 2430|era=BCE}}) held the [[hegemony]] over Sumer after defeating Kish; however, he was in turn defeated by [[Enshakushanna]] of Uruk.

Hamazi was one of the provinces under the reign of [[Amar-Suen]] ({{reign|1=c. 2047|2=c. 2038|3=c. 2046|4=c. 2038|era=BCE}}) of the [[third dynasty of Ur]]. Ur-Adad, Lu-nanna (son of [[Nam-mahani]]), Ur-Ishkur, and Warad-Nannar may have ruled as governors of Hamazi up until the province was plundered {{circa|2010}} BCE by [[Ishbi-Erra]] ({{reign|1=c. 2018|2=c. 1985|3=c. 2017|4=c. 1985|era=BC}}) of [[Isin]]. The rulers of Hamazi are believed to have {{reign|c. 3245|c. 2010|era=BCE}}.
===Kish civilization (c. 3100 – c. 2350 BCE)===
{{main|Kish civilization}}
====Kish (c. 3750 BCE – c. 1200 CE)====
{{main|Kish (Sumer)}}
=====Kish II dynasty (c. 2585 – c. 2430 BCE)=====
Two rulers (neither appear on the ''SKL'') are known to have ruled from Kish in between the first and second dynasties: Uhub ({{reign|c. 2570|c. 2550|era=BCE}}) and Mesilim ({{reign|c. 2550|c. 2500|era=BCE}}). The ''SKL'' names another eight kings for this dynasty: Susuda, Dadasig, Mamagal, Kalbum, Tuge, Mennuna, Enbi-Ishtar, and Lugalngu. Next to nothing is known about the aforementioned eight.
=====Kish III dynasty (c. 2430 – c. 2360 BCE)=====
The third dynasty of Kish is unique in that it is represented by a woman named [[Kubaba]] ({{reign|1=c. 2450|2=c. 2365|3=c. 2430|4=c. 2350|era=BCE}}). The ''SKL'' adds that she had been a tavern-keeper before overthrowing the hegemony of Mari and becoming monarch. According to the ''[[Babylonian Chronicles|Weidner Chronicle]]'': the god [[Marduk]] handed over the kingship to Kubaba of Kish during the reign of Puzur-Nirah of Akshak; although, according to the ''SKL'': the Akshak dynasty succeeded the third of Kish. Although its military and economic power was diminished, Kish retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Just as with [[Nippur]] to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia (Assyria and/or [[Subartu]]).

Kubaba's dynasty is sometimes said to include her son [[Puzur-Suen]] ({{reign|c. 2365|c. 2340|era=BC}}) and grandson [[Ur-Zababa]] ({{reign|c. 2340|c. 2334|era=BC}}). The ''SKL'' ascribes a 100-year-long reign for the [[matriarch]], 25 for her son, and (varyingly) 4, 6, or even up to 400 years to her grandson. Altogether they ruled for 131 years.

[[Sargon of Akkad]] came from an area near Kish called ''[[Azupiranu]]''. He would later declare himself the ''king of Kish'', as an attempt to signify his connection to the religiously important area. Because of the city's symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "''king of Kish''", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, [[Isin]], [[Larsa]], or [[Babylon]]. Kubaba was later deified as the goddess [[Hebat|Kheba]].
=====Kish IV dynasty (c. 2360 – c. 2254 BCE)=====
The kings of the fourth dynasty of Kish are believed to have {{reign|1=c. 2360|2=c. 2254|3=c. 2340|4=c. 2254|era=BCE}}. Some versions of the ''SKL'' lists 6, 7, or 8 kings (including the son and grandson of Kubaba from the third dynasty). Beside the aforementioned two related to the third dynasty, there is: Zimudar, Usiwater, Eshtar-muti, Ishme-Shamash, Shu-ilishu, Nanniya. Zimudar and his successors seem to have been vassals for Sargon of Akkad, and there is no evidence that they ever exercised hegemony in Sumer.
====Mari (c. 2900 – c. 300 BCE)====
{{main|Mari, Syria}}
{{see|List of kings of Mari}}
=====Mari I dynasty (c. 2900 – c. 2550 BCE)=====
Mari did not start off as a small settlement that later grew; but, more of a [[planned city]] that was founded {{circa|2900}} BCE (by Sumerians or possibly even by East Semites) to control the waterways of the trade routes along the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system]]. The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers away from the [[Euphrates river]] to protect it from floods, and was connected to the river by an artificial [[canal]] that was between 7 and 10 kilometers long, depending on which [[meander]] it used for transport, which is hard to identify today. The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation. A defensive system against floods composed of a circular embankment was unearthed, in addition to a circular 6.7&nbsp;m thick internal rampart to protect the city from enemies. An area 300 meters in length filled with gardens and craftsmen quarters separated the outer embankment from the inner rampart, which had a height of 8 to 10 meters and was strengthened by defensive towers. Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses. Mari had a central mound, but no temple or palace has been unearthed there. A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 meters X 25 meters) and seems to have had an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide. The ''SKL'' records a dynasty of six kings from Mari enjoying hegemony between the first of Adab and the third of Kish: Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi, Limer, and Sharrumiter. It has been suggested that only Sharrumiter held the hegemony after Lugalannemundu. The city was abandoned {{circa|2550}} BCE for reasons unknown.
=====Mari II dynasty (c. 2500 – c. 2330 BCE)=====
The names of the kings from the first Mariote kingdom were damaged on earlier copies of the ''SKL'', and those kings were correlated with historical kings that belonged to the second kingdom. However, an undamaged copy of the ''SKL'' that dates to the old Babylonian period was discovered in [[Tell Leilan|Shubat-Enlil]], and the names bear no resemblance to any of the historically-attested rulers of the second Mariote kingdom, indicating that the compilers of the ''SKL'' had an older (and probably legendary) dynasty in mind that predates the second kingdom

The rulers of the second Mariote kingdom held the Sumerian title for ''king'', and many are attested in the city, the most important source being a letter written by king Enna-Dagan {{circa|2350}} BCE to Irkab-Damu of Ebla. The chronological order of the kings from the second kingdom era is highly uncertain; nevertheless, it is assumed that the letter of Enna-Dagan lists them in a chronological order. Many of the kings were attested through their own votive objects discovered in the city, and the dates are highly speculative. The kings of the second Mariote kingdom may have {{reign|1=c. 2550|2=c. 2290|3=c. 2450|4=c. 2260|era=BCE}}.

The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is [[Ansud]], who is mentioned as attacking [[Ebla]], the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a century-long war, and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of Belan. The next king mentioned in the letter is [[Saʿumu]] ({{reign|c. 2416|c. 2400|era=BCE}}), who conquered the lands of Ra'ak and Nirum. King [[Kun-Damu]] ({{reign|c. 2400|c. 2380|era=BCE}}) of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BCE. The war continued with [[Ishtup-Ishar]] ({{reign|c. 2400|c. 2380|era=BCE}}) of Mari's conquest of [[Emar]] at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BCE. King [[Igrish-Halam]] ({{reign|c. 2360|c. 2340|era=BCE}}) of Ebla had to pay tribute to [[Iblul-Il]] ({{reign|1=c. 2425|2=c. 2400|3=c. 2400|4=c. 2380|era=BCE}}) of Mari, who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the [[Sweyhat|Burman]] region.

Enna-Dagan also received tribute; his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla, who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute. Mari defeated Ebla's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia. The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa. Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa {{circa|2300}} BCE, during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar. According to Alfonso Archi, Hidar was succeeded by Ishqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.
<gallery>
File:Ebih-ii en priere.jpg|''[[Statue of Ebih-Il]]''
File:Iku-Shamagan - Mari - Temple of Ninni-Zaza (retouched).jpg
File:Ishqi-Mari (dark background).jpg
File:Cylinder seal banquet Louvre AO18368.jpg
File:Cylinder seal battle Louvre AO18359.jpg
File:Cylinder seal god-ship Louvre AO18356.jpg
File:Bust orant Louvre AO17557.jpg
File:Praying woman Louvre AO18213.jpg
</gallery>
====Akshak (c. 2600 – c. 2330 BCE)====
{{main|Akshak}}
=====Akshak dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2330 BCE)=====
[[Akshak]] achieved independence with a line of five or six kings extending from Unzi, Undalulu, Urur to Puzur-Nirah, Ishu-Il, and Shu-Suen (son of Ishu-Il). These kings of Akshak {{reign|c. 2459|c. 2360|era=BCE}} before being defeated by the kings in the fourth dynasty of Kish. One ruler preceding Unzi by the name of Zuzu ({{reign|single=c. 2470|era=BCE}}) may have been smited by Eannatum of Lagash.
====Ebla (c. 3500 BCE – c. 600 CE)====
{{main|Ebla}}
{{see|List of kings of Ebla}}
=====Ebla I dynasty (c. 3100 – c. 2290 BCE)=====
====Assur (c. 2600 BCE – c. 1400 CE)====
{{main|Assur}}
{{see|Early Period (Assyria)|List of Assyrian kings#Early Assyrian kings}}
{{see also|Assur|Subartu}}
=====Assur I dynasty (c. 2600 – c. 2025 BCE)=====
==Timeline==
{{see|Sumerian King List|List of Mesopotamian dynasties|Chronology of the ancient Near East|Middle chronology|Short chronology}}
<timeline>
ImageSize  = width:1536 height:1024
PlotArea   = top:32 bottom:32 right:192 left:32
AlignBars  = justify
Period     = from:-2500 till:-2350
TimeAxis   = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:10 start:-2500
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1  start:-2500
Colors     =
 id:canvas  value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)
 id:ur      value:red
 id:awan    value:orange
 id:kish    value:rgb(1,0.843,0)
 id:hamazi  value:yellow
 id:uruk    value:rgb(0.25,1,0)
 id:lagash  value:rgb(0.45,0.76,0.4)
 id:umma    value:green
 id:adab    value:rgb(0,0.65,0.58)
 id:mari    value:blue
 id:akshak  value:purple
 id:ebla    value:rgb(0.753,0.753,0.753)
 id:nagar   value:rgb(0.41,0.41,0.41)
 id:assur   value:black
Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas
BarData =
 barset:Rulers
PlotData   =
 width:8 align:left fontsize:8 shift:(2,-4) anchor:till
 barset:Rulers
 from:-2500 till:-2496 color:ur     text:"[[Puabi]] (c. 2550 BCE)"
 from:-2496 till:-2493 color:ur     text:"[[Akalamdug]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2493 till:-2490 color:ur     text:"[[Mesannepada]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2490 till:-2486 color:ur     text:"[[A'annepada]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2486 till:-2450 color:ur     text:"[[Meskiagnun]] (c. 2485 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2425 color:ur     text:"[[Elulu]] (c. 2445 BCE)"
 from:-2425 till:-2389 color:ur     text:"[[Balulu]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2389 till:-2370 color:ur     text:"Nanni (c. 2380 BCE)"
 from:-2370 till:-2352 color:ur     text:"Meskiagnun (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2352 till:-2350 color:ur     text:"... (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2485 color:awan   text:"... (c. 2550 BCE)"
 from:-2485 till:-2470 color:awan   text:"...-Lu (c. 2470 BCE)"
 from:-2470 till:-2455 color:awan   text:"Kul-... (c. 2460 BCE)"
 from:-2455 till:-2440 color:awan   text:"Peli (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2440 till:-2425 color:awan   text:"Tata (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2425 till:-2410 color:awan   text:"Ukku-Takhesh (c. 2410 BCE)"
 from:-2410 till:-2395 color:awan   text:"Hishur (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2395 till:-2380 color:awan   text:"Shushun-Tarana (c. 2380 BCE)"
 from:-2380 till:-2365 color:awan   text:"Napil-Khush (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2365 till:-2350 color:awan   text:"Kikkutanteimti (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2350 till:-2350 color:awan   text:"[[Luh-ishan]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2490 color:kish   text:"[[Mesilim]] (c. 2550 BCE)"
 from:-2490 till:-2480 color:kish   text:"[[Susuda]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2480 till:-2470 color:kish   text:"[[Dadasig]] (c. 2470 BCE)"
 from:-2470 till:-2460 color:kish   text:"Mamagal (c. 2460 BCE)"
 from:-2460 till:-2450 color:kish   text:"Kalbum (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2440 color:kish   text:"Tuge (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2440 till:-2430 color:kish   text:"Mennuna (c. 2430 BCE)"
 from:-2430 till:-2420 color:kish   text:"Enbi-Ishtar (c. 2420 BCE)"
 from:-2420 till:-2410 color:kish   text:"Lugalngu (c. 2410 BCE)"
 from:-2410 till:-2381 color:kish   text:"[[Kubaba]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2381 till:-2356 color:kish   text:"[[Puzur-Suen]] (c. 2360 BCE)"
 from:-2356 till:-2350 color:kish   text:"[[Ur-Zababa]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2430 color:hamazi text:"Hadanish (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2430 till:-2350 color:hamazi text:"Zizi (c. 2430 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2450 color:uruk   text:"Lugalnamnirshumma (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2445 color:uruk   text:"Lugalsilasi (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2445 till:-2440 color:uruk   text:"Urzage (c. 2445 BCE)"
 from:-2440 till:-2430 color:uruk   text:"[[Enshakushanna]] (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2430 till:-2400 color:uruk   text:"[[Lugalkinishedudu]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2400 till:-2362 color:uruk   text:"[[Lugalkisalsi]] (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2362 till:-2355 color:uruk   text:"Argandea (c. 2360 BCE)"
 from:-2355 till:-2350 color:uruk   text:"[[Lugalzagesi]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2494 color:lagash text:"[[Lugalshaengur]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2494 till:-2466 color:lagash text:"[[Ur-Nanshe]] (c. 2490 BCE)"
 from:-2466 till:-2457 color:lagash text:"[[Akurgal]] (c. 2460 BCE)"
 from:-2457 till:-2424 color:lagash text:"[[Eannatum]] (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2424 till:-2420 color:lagash text:"[[Enannatum I]] (c. 2424 BCE)"
 from:-2420 till:-2391 color:lagash text:"[[Entemena]] (c. 2420 BCE)"
 from:-2391 till:-2382 color:lagash text:"[[Enannatum II]] (c. 2390 BCE)"
 from:-2382 till:-2377 color:lagash text:"[[Enentarzi]] (c. 2380 BCE)"
 from:-2377 till:-2370 color:lagash text:"Enlitarzi (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2370 till:-2361 color:lagash text:"[[Lugalanda]] (c. 2365 BCE)"
 from:-2361 till:-2350 color:lagash text:"[[Urukagina]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2455 color:umma   text:"[[Pabilgagaltuku]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2455 till:-2445 color:umma   text:"[[Ush, king of Umma|Ush]] (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2445 till:-2437 color:umma   text:"[[Enakalle]] (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2437 till:-2425 color:umma   text:"[[Ur-Lumma]] (c. 2430 BCE)"
 from:-2425 till:-2410 color:umma   text:"[[Il, king of Umma|Il]] (c. 2420 BCE)"
 from:-2410 till:-2405 color:umma   text:"[[Gishakidu]] (c. 2410 BCE)"
 from:-2405 till:-2399 color:umma   text:"Edin (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2399 till:-2367 color:umma   text:"Meanedu (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2367 till:-2358 color:umma   text:"Ushurdu (c. 2360 BCE)"
 from:-2358 till:-2350 color:umma   text:"[[Ukush]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2450 color:adab   text:"[[Nin-kisalsi]] (c. 2550 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2440 color:adab   text:"[[Lugaldalu]] (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2440 till:-2368 color:adab   text:"[[Lugalanamundu]] (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2368 till:-2358 color:adab   text:"[[Mug-si]] (c. 2360 BCE)"
 from:-2358 till:-2355 color:adab   text:"[[E-iginimpa'e]] (c. 2355 BCE)"
 from:-2355 till:-2350 color:adab   text:"[[Meskigal]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2473 color:mari   text:"[[Ikun-Shamash]] (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2473 till:-2453 color:mari   text:"[[Iku-Shamagan]] (c. 2470 BCE)"
 from:-2453 till:-2423 color:mari   text:"[[Ishqi-Mari]] (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2423 till:-2416 color:mari   text:"[[Ansud]] (c. 2420  BCE)"
 from:-2416 till:-2400 color:mari   text:"[[Saʿumu]] (c. 2410 BCE)"
 from:-2400 till:-2394 color:mari   text:"[[Ishtup-Ishar]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2394 till:-2388 color:mari   text:"[[Iblul-Il]] (c. 2390 BCE)"
 from:-2388 till:-2385 color:mari   text:"Nizi (c. 2385 BCE)"
 from:-2385 till:-2370 color:mari   text:"Enna-Dagan (c. 2380 BCE)"
 from:-2370 till:-2355 color:mari   text:"Ikun-Ishar (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2355 till:-2350 color:mari   text:"Hidar (c. 2355 BCE)"
 from:-2350 till:-2350 color:mari   text:"[[Ishqi-Mari]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2443 color:akshak text:"Zuzu (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2443 till:-2413 color:akshak text:"Unzi (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2413 till:-2407 color:akshak text:"Undalulu (c. 2410 BCE)"
 from:-2407 till:-2401 color:akshak text:"Urur (c. 2405 BCE)"
 from:-2401 till:-2381 color:akshak text:"Puzur-Nirah (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2381 till:-2357 color:akshak text:"Ishu-Il (c. 2370 BCE)"
 from:-2357 till:-2350 color:akshak text:"Shu-Suen (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2500 till:-2480 color:ebla   text:"Agur-Lim (c. 2500 BCE)"
 from:-2480 till:-2460 color:ebla   text:"Ib-Damu (c. 2480 BCE)"
 from:-2460 till:-2450 color:ebla   text:"Baga-Damu (c. 2460 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2440 color:ebla   text:"Enar-Damu (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2440 till:-2428 color:ebla   text:"Eshar-Malik (c. 2440 BCE)"
 from:-2428 till:-2408 color:ebla   text:"[[Kun-Damu]] (c. 2420 BCE)"
 from:-2408 till:-2408 color:ebla   text:"Adub-Damu (c. 2408 BCE)"
 from:-2408 till:-2396 color:ebla   text:"[[Igrish-Halam]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2396 till:-2385 color:ebla   text:"[[Irkab-Damu]] (c. 2385 BCE)"
 from:-2385 till:-2350 color:ebla   text:"[[Isar-Damu]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2350 till:-2350 color:ebla   text:"Ir'ak-Damu (c. 2350 BCE)"
 from:-2400 till:-2350 color:nagar  text:"[[Mara-Il]] (c. 2400 BCE)"
 from:-2450 till:-2350 color:assur  text:"[[Tudiya]] (c. 2450 BCE)"
 from:-2350 till:-2350 color:assur  text:"[[Adamu (Assyrian king)|Adamu]] (c. 2350 BCE)"
</timeline>
'''Legend:'''
*<span style="background:red;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Red}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Ur]]
*<span style="background:orange;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Orange}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Awan (ancient city)|Awan]]
*<span style="background:gold;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Gold}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]
*<span style="background:yellow;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Yellow}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Hamazi]]
*<span style="background:#3FFF00;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Lime}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Uruk]]
*<span style="background:#74C365;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|black|Fern}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Lagash]]
*<span style="background:green;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Green}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Umma]]
*<span style="background:teal;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Teal}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Adab (city)|Adab]]
*<span style="background:blue;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Blue}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]]
*<span style="background:purple;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Purple}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Akshak]]
*<span style="background:#C0C0C0;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Silver}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Ebla]]
*<span style="background:#696969;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Gray}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Tell Brak|Nagar]]
*<span style="background:black;width:50px;border:1px solid #AAAAAA">{{font color|white|Black}}</span> denotes rulers of [[Assur]]
==See also==
==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note|colwidth=40em}}
===Citations===
{{reflist|25em}}
===Sources===
{{refbegin|30em}}
{{refend}}
===Bibliography===
===Further reading===
===External links===
====Geography====
====Language====
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