Heterosis

Heterosis, ike ngwakọ, ma ọ bụ nkwalite mmepụta bụ nkwalite ma ọ bụ ịbawanye ọrụ nke ụdị ndu ọ bụla n'ime mkpụrụ ngwakọ. Nwa bụ heterotic ma ọ bụrụ na a na-emewanye àgwà ya n'ihi ịgwakọta onyinye mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke nne na nna ya. Ụmụ heterotic na-enwekarị àgwà ndị karịrị mfe mgbakwunye nke àgwà nne na nna, nke Mendelian ma ọ bụ ndị na-abụghị Mendelian nwere ike ịkọwa ya. Àgwà ọma heterotic/ngwakọ nke mmasị na ọrụ ugbo bụ mkpụrụ dị elu, ntozu oke ngwa ngwa, nkwụsi ike, nnabata mmiri ozuzo. ^[1] wdg.

N'ịtụ aro okwu heterosis iji dochie okwu ochie heterozygosis, G.H. Shull bu n'uche izere igbochi okwu ahụ na mmetụta nke enwere ike ịkọwa site na heterozygoity na ihe nketa Mendelian.^[2]   A na-ekwukarị Heterosis dị ka ihe megidere ịda mbà n'obi ịmụ nwa, ọ bụ ezie na ọdịiche dị na echiche abụọ a nwere ike ịhụ na echiche evolushọn dị ka ọrụ mgbanwe mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ma ọ bụ mmetụta nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na obere mmadụ na echiche ndị a. Ịda mbà n'obi na-amụba na-eme mgbe ndị nne na nna nwere mmekọrịta nwere ụmụaka nwere àgwà ndị na-emetụta ahụ ike ha n'ụzọ dị ukwuu n'ihi homozygosity. N'ọnọdụ ndị dị otú ahụ, ịpụpụ kwesịrị ịkpata heterosis.

Ọ bụghị mpụ niile na-ebute heterosis. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, mgbe ngwakọ na-eketa àgwà n'aka nne na nna ya na-adabaghị n'ụzọ zuru ezu, ahụike nwere ike ibelata. Nke a bụ ụdị ịda mbà n'obi na-esiwanye ike, mmetụta ya yiri ịda mbà n'obi ịmụ nwa.^[3]

Kemgbe mmalite afọ 1900, e mepụtara echiche abụọ na-asọ mpi nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, nke na-abụghị nke na-emegide ibe ya, iji kọwaa ike ngwakọta. N'oge na-adịbeghị anya, e guzobekwara akụkụ epigenetic nke ike ngwakọta. ^[4][5]

  Mgbe ọnụ ọgụgụ mmadụ dị ntakịrị ma ọ bụ zụlitere, ọ na-atụfu ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa dị iche iche. Ịda mbà n'obi na-amụba bụ ọnwụ nke ahụ ike n'ihi nkwụsị nke ụdị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa dị iche iche. Udiri ekere eke na-abụkarị homozygous maka recessive alleles nke na-adị nwayọọ na-emerụ ahụ (ma ọ bụ na-emepụta àgwà na-adịghị mma site n'echiche nke onye na-azụ ya). Heterosis ma ọ bụ ike ngwakọ, n'aka nke ọzọ, bụ ọdịdị nke ụdị anụ ahụ na-agafe karịa ndị nne na nna mụrụ na ahụike.

Nhọrọ nke osisi na anụmanụ, gụnyere ngwakọ, malitere ogologo oge tupu enwee nghọta nke ụkpụrụ sayensị dị n'okpuru. Ná mmalite narị afọ nke 20, mgbe a bịara ghọta ma nabata iwu Mendel, ndị ọkà mmụta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa mere ọrụ ịkọwapụta ike dị elu nke ọtụtụ ngwakọ ihe ọkụkụ. Echiche abụọ na-asọrịta mpi, nke na-abụghị nke na-ekewa, ka ewepụtara. ^[6]

• Echiche nke ịchịkwa. Echiche nchịkwa na-ekwu na ịdị elu nke ngwakọta na mgbochi nke alleles recessive na-adịghị mma site n'otu nne ma ọ bụ nna site na alleles na-achịkwa site na nke ọzọ. Ọ na-ekwu na arụmọrụ na-adịghị mma nke ụdị ndị a na-amụ amụnye na-efu ọdịiche dị iche iche nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa, na ụdị ndị ahụ na-aghọ homozygous n'ọtụtụ ebe. Ọ bụ onye ọkà mmụta ihe nketa bụ Charles Davenport gosipụtara echiche nke mmeri na 1908. ^[7] N'okpuru echiche nke nchịkwa, a na-atụ anya na a ga-anọgide na-enwe alleles na-emerụ ahụ n'etiti ndị na-alụ na mberede na nguzozi nhọrọ-mutation nke ga-adabere na ọnụego nke mutation, mmetụta nke alleles na ogo nke alleles gosipụtara na heterozygotes. ^[8]
• Echiche nke ikike karịrị akarị. Njikọ ụfọdụ nke alleles nke enwere ike inweta site na ịgafe ụdị abụọ a na-amụ amụba bara uru na heterozygote. Echiche nke overdominance na-ekwu na uru heterozygote na-adịgide adịgide nke ọtụtụ alleles ndị na-agbadata ma na-emerụ ahụ na homozygotes. Ọ na-ekwu na arụmọrụ na-adịghị mma nke ụdị ndị a na-amụ amụ na pasent dị elu nke ihe ndị a na'ụzọ na-emerụ ahụ. Edward M. East (1908) na George Shull (1908) mepụtara echiche nke overdominance n'onwe ya. ^[9][10] A na-atụ anya na a ga-enwe ọdịiche nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na locus karịrị akarị site na nhọpụta nguzozi. Ọdịdị dị elu nke heterozygous genotypes na-akwado nnọgidesi ike nke polymorphism allelic n'ime ndị mmadụ. ^[8] A na-ekwukarị echiche a iji kọwaa nnọgidesi ike nke ụfọdụ alleles (nke a ma ama bụ Sickle cell trait allele) nke na-emerụ ahụ na homozygotes. N'ọnọdụ dị mma, a ga-ewepụ ihe ndị dị otú ahụ na-emerụ ahụ n'etiti ndị mmadụ site na usoro nhọrọ okike. Dị ka echiche nke nchịkwa, ọ na-ekwu na arụmọrụ na-adịghị mma nke ụdị ndị a na-amụ n'ime na-egosipụta ụdị ihe ndị dị otú ahụ na-emerụ ahụ.

Nchịkwa na overdominance nwere nsonaazụ dị iche iche maka njirimara ngosipụta nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke ndị mmadụ. Ọ bụrụ na overdominance bụ isi ihe kpatara uru ahụike nke heterosis, mgbe ahụ, a ga-enwe ngosipụta nke ụfọdụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na ụmụ heterozygous ma e jiri ya tụnyere ndị nne na nna homozygous. N'aka nke ọzọ, ọ bụrụ na nchịkwa bụ ihe kpatara ya, a ga-egosipụta mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ole na ole na ụmụ heterozygous ma e jiri ya tụnyere ndị nne na nna. Ọzọkwa, maka mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ọ bụla, ngosipụta ahụ kwesịrị ịdị ka nke a hụrụ na fitter nke nne na nna abụọ ahụ. N'ọnọdụ ọ bụla, njikọ aka na-enye uru nke ikpuchi ihe ndị na-emebi emebi na ụmụ. A tụwo aro ka uru a bụrụ isi ihe na-eme ka ọmụmụ mmekọahụ n'etiti eukaryotes, dịka akọwapụtara na isiokwu Evolution of sexual reproduction.

Nke n'ime usoro abụọ ahụ bụ "isi" ihe kpatara heterosis abụwo esemokwu sayensị n'ọhịa nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.^[11] Onye na-ahụ maka mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa James Crow (1916-2012) kwenyere, n'oge ọ bụ nwata, na mmeri bụ isi ihe na-enye aka na ike ngwakọta. N'afọ 1998, o bipụtara nyocha nke sayensị na-emepe emepe.^[12] Dị ka Crow si kwuo, ngosipụta nke ọtụtụ ikpe nke uru heterozygote na Drosophila na ihe ndị ọzọ dị ndụ bu ụzọ mee ka nnukwu ịnụ ọkụ n'obi maka echiche nke overdominance n'etiti ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na-amụ ngwakọta osisi. Mana oke mmeri na-egosi na mmepụta nke ụdị a na-amụ amụ kwesịrị ibelata ka a na-ahọrọ ụdị a na'amụ amụ maka arụmọrụ nke cross cross ha, ka ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ihe ndị na-emerụ ahụ n'ime ndị a na-azụ amụ amụ na-arị elu. Kemgbe ọtụtụ afọ, nnwale na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nke osisi egosila na ihe dị iche na-eme, nke na-eme ka mmụba dị na ụdị na ngwakọta, na-atụ aro na nchịkwa naanị nwere ike zuo ezu iji kọwaa mmepụta dị elu nke ngwakọta. Naanị ihe ole na ole doro anya nke oke mmeri ka a kọrọ na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa niile. Kemgbe afọ 1980, ka ihe akaebe nnwale na-arị elu, echiche nchịkwa alaghachila.

Crow dere, sị:

Echiche dị ugbu a ... bụ na echiche nchịkwa bụ nkọwa bụ isi nke mbelata inbreeding na nnukwu mmepụta nke ngwakọta.[of] E nwere obere ihe akaebe ọnụ ọgụgụ maka onyinye sitere na overdominance na epistasis. Mana ma ngwakọta kachasị mma na-enweta nkwado ọzọ site na overdominance ma ọ bụ onyinye epistatic dị mma ka bụ ajụjụ a na-enweghị isi.^[12]

  E guzobere onyinye epigenetic na heterosis na osisi, a kọwakwara ya na anụmanụ. ^[5][13] MicroRNAs (miRNAs), chọpụtara na 1993, bụ klas nke obere RNAs na-abụghị koodu nke na-egbochi ntụgharị nke ozi RNAs (mRNAs) ma ọ bụ na-akpata mmebi nke mRNAs.^[14] N'ime osisi ngwakọta, ọtụtụ miRNAs nwere ngosipụta na-abụghị nke mgbakwunye (ọ nwere ike ịdị elu ma ọ bụ dị ala karịa ọkwa dị na ndị nne na nna). ^[5] Nke a na-egosi na obere RNAs na-etinye aka na uto, ume na mgbanwe nke ngwakọta. ^[5]

E gosipụtara mmetụta 'Heterosis na-enweghị ngwakọta' na nha osisi na osisi F1 triploid (autopolyploid) nke isogenic, ebe nna F1 tripleids na-egosipụta heterosis dị mma, ebe nne F1s na-egosiputa mmetụta heterosis na-adịghị mma.^[15] Nchọpụta ndị dị otú ahụ na-egosi na mmetụta heterosis, nke nwere ntọala epigenetic dabere na dosage, nwere ike ịmepụta na ụmụ F1 nke bụ isogenic (ya bụ, enweghị heterozygosity). ^[15][16] E gosipụtara na ike ngwakọta na ngwakọta allopolyploid nke ụdị Arabidopsis abụọ bụ n'ihi njikwa epigenetic na mpaghara elu nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa abụọ, nke kpatara nnukwu mgbanwe na chlorophyll na nchịkọta starch.^[4] Usoro a na-agụnye acetylation ma ọ bụ methylation nke amino acid ụfọdụ na histone H3, protein nwere njikọ chiri anya na DNA, nke nwere ike ime ka ma ọ bụ gbochie mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa metụtara ya.

Otu ihe atụ nke ebe ụfọdụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nwere ike ịdị mkpa na anụmanụ nwere azụ maka heterosis bụ isi histocompatibility complex (MHC). Vertebrates ketara ọtụtụ mbipụta nke MHC klas I na MHC klas II site na nne ma ọ bụ nna ọ bụla, nke a na-eji na ngosipụta antigen dị ka akụkụ nke usoro ahụ ji alụso ọrịa ọgụ. Nke ọ bụla dị iche iche nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nwere ike ijikọta ma gosipụta usoro dị iche iche nwere ike ịbụ peptide na T-lymphocytes. Mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa ndị a bụ ndị polymorphic n'etiti ndị mmadụ niile, mana ha yiri ibe ha na ndị pere mpe, ndị nwere njikọ chiri anya. Ịzụlite n'etiti ndị ọzọ dị anya na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa na-ebelata ohere nke iketa mkpụrụ ndụ ihe ubi abụọ bụ otu ma ọ bụ yiri ya, na-enye ohere ka e gosipụta ụdị peptide dịgasị iche iche. Ya mere, nke a na-eme ka ohere nke a ga-amata pathogen ọ bụla, ma ọ pụtara na a ga-ahụkarị protein ndị ọzọ na pathogen niile, na-enye ọtụtụ T-cell activation, yabụ mmeghachi omume ka ukwuu. Nke a pụtakwara na ikike mgbochi ọrịa a nwetara na pathogen na-emegide ọtụtụ antigens, nke pụtara na pathogens ga-agbanwe karịa tupu ikike mgbochi ahụ efunahụ. N'ihi ya, ngwakọta nwere ike ọ gaghị anwụ n'ọrịa na-akpata ọrịa ma nwee ike ịlụso ọrịa ọgụ. Otú ọ dị, nke a nwere ike ịbụ ihe kpatara ọrịa autoimmune.   ^{[citation needed]}

Mmekọrịta n'etiti ụmụ anụmanụ sitere n'ìgwè heterotic dị iche iche na-ebute ngwakọta F1 siri ike na heterosis karịa ngwakọta F 1 sitere na ụmụ anụmanụ n'ime otu ìgwè ma ọ bụ usoro heterotic. Ndị na-azụ osisi na-emepụta ìgwè dị iche iche iji kewaa usoro ndị a na-azụlite, a pụkwara imeziwanye ya site na nhọrọ ugboro ugboro.

A na-eji Heterosis eme ihe iji mụbaa mmepụta, otu, na ume. A na-eji usoro ọmụmụ ngwakọta eme ihe na ọka, sorghum, osikapa, shuga beet, onion, spinach, sunflowers, broccoli na ịmepụta cannabis na-arụ ọrụ.

Ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ọka niile a na-akụ n'ọtụtụ Mba ndị mepere emepe na-egosipụta heterosis. Mkpụrụ ọka nke oge a na-eme ka ụdị ndị a na-ahụkarị ghara ịpụta ma na-emeghachi omume nke ọma na fatịlaịza.

George H. Shull na Edward M. East gosipụtara heterosis ọka na mmalite narị afọ nke 20 mgbe Dr. William James Beal nke Mahadum Michigan State mepụtara ọka ngwakọta dabere na ọrụ malitere na 1879 na agbamume nke Charles Darwin. Ọrụ Dr. Beal dugara na akụkọ mbụ e bipụtara banyere nnwale n'ọhịa na-egosi ike ngwakọta na ọka, site n'aka Eugene Davenport na Perry Holden, 1881. Ndị ọsụ ụzọ dị iche iche nke botany na mpaghara ndị metụtara ya gosipụtara na crossings nke ahịrị ndị a na-emepụta site na Southern dent na Northern flint, n'otu n'otu, gosipụtara heterosis dị ukwuu na mmepụta omenala nke oge ahụ. Otú ọ dị, n'oge ahụ, a pụghị ime ụdị ngwakọta dị otú ahụ n'ụzọ akụ na ụba n'ọtụtụ maka ndị ọrụ ugbo. Donald F. Jones na Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven mepụtara usoro mbụ bara uru nke ịmepụta ọka ngwakọta na-amị mkpụrụ dị elu na 1914-1917. Usoro Jones mepụtara ngwakọta okpukpu abụọ, nke chọrọ nzọụkwụ abụọ na-arụ ọrụ site na ahịrị anọ dị iche iche. Ọrụ ndị na-azụ ọka mechara mepụta usoro ndị a na-azụ n'ime ha nwere ume zuru ezu maka mmepụta nke ngwakọta azụmahịa n'otu nzọụkwụ, ngwakọta otu cross. A na-eme ngwakọta nke otu cross site na nne na nna abụọ mbụ. Ha na-adịkarị ike ma na-adịkwa otu karịa ngwakọta abụọ mbụ. Usoro nke ịmepụta ngwakọta ndị a na-agụnyekarị iwepụ.

A na-enweta ngwakọta ọka dị nro site na ìgwè abụọ dị iche iche: 'Iowa Stiff Stalk Synthetic', na non-tiff stalk.   ^{[citation needed]}

Osikapa ngwakọta na-ahụ ọrụ ugbo n'ọtụtụ mba, gụnyere China, India, Vietnam, na Philippines.^[17] N'iji ya tụnyere ahịrị ndị a na-azụlite, ngwakọta na-emepụta ihe dịka 20% nke mkpụrụ osisi, ma mejupụtara 45% nke ebe a na-akụ osikapa na China.^[18] Mmepụta osikapa ahụla ịrị elu dị ukwuu na China n'ihi ojiji siri ike nke osikapa ngwakọta. Na China, mgbalị emeela ka ụdị osikapa super hybrid ('LYP9') nwee ikike mmepụta ihe dị ka tọn 15 kwa hekta. Na India kwa, ọtụtụ ụdị egosila ike dị elu, gụnyere 'RH-10' na 'Suruchi 5401'.   ^{[citation needed]}

Ebe ọ bụ na osikapa bụ ụdị na-amị mkpụrụ n'onwe ya, ọ chọrọ iji akara nwoke na-amụghị iji mepụta ngwakọta site na agbụrụ dị iche iche. Ụzọ a na-ejikarị eme nke a bụ iji ahịrị ndị nwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa nwoke, ebe ọ bụ na ịkpụcha aka abụghị ihe kachasị mma maka ngwakọta buru ibu.^[19] E mepụtara ọgbọ mbụ nke osikapa ngwakọta na 1970s. Ọ na-adabere na ahịrị atọ: ahịrị nwoke na-adịghị eme nke cytoplasmic (CMS), ahịrị onye na-elekọta, na ahịrị onye weghachiri.^[18] A nabatara ọgbọ nke abụọ n'ọtụtụ ebe n'afọ ndị 1990.^[18] Kama akara CMS, ọ na-eji akara nwoke na-adịghị amị mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa (EGMS), nke nwere ike ịgbanwe enweghị amị dabere na ìhè ma ọ bụ okpomọkụ.^[19] Nke a na-ewepụ mkpa maka onye na-elekọta, na-eme ka usoro ngwakọta na ịzụlite dịkwuo irè (ọ bụ ezie na ọ ka dị elu). Usoro ọgbọ nke abụọ na-egosi mmụba nke 5-10% karịa usoro ọgbọ mbụ.^[19] Ọgbọ nke atọ na nke ugbu a na-eji akara nuklia nwoke na-adịghị eme ihe (NMS). Ọgbọ nke atọ nwere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa recessive sterility, na ịzụlite ha dị nro karịa maka usoro nlekọta na ọnọdụ gburugburu ebe obibi. Tụkwasị na nke a, transgenes dị naanị na onye na-elekọta ya, yabụ osisi hybrid nwere ike irite uru site na ike hybrid n'achọghị nlekọta pụrụ iche.^[18]

A na-etinyekwa echiche nke heterosis na mmepụta nke anụ ụlọ azụmahịa. N'ụmụ ehi, obe dị n'etiti Black Angus na Hereford na-emepụta obe a maara dị ka "Black Baldy". N'ime Ezì, a na-emepụta "ụgbọ na-acha anụnụ anụnụ" site na obe nke Hampshire na Yorkshire. Ndị ọzọ, ndị ọzọ na-abụghị ndị ọzọ (ụdị abụọ dị iche iche, ya mere mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa dị iche iche), dị ka "beefalo" nke bụ ngwakọta nke ehi na atụ, a na-ejikwa ya maka ahịa pụrụ iche.

N'ime ọkụkọ, ejirila mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa metụtara mmekọahụ mepụta ngwakọta nke a ga-ahazi ụmụ nwoke na ụmụ nwanyị n'otu ụbọchị site na agba. Mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa a na-eji eme nke a bụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nkesa maka igbochi na uto nku. Obe nke ụdị a na-emepụta ihe a na-ere dị ka Black Sex-links, Red Sex-links.

A na-emepụta broilers azụmahịa site na ịgafe ụdị dị iche iche nke White Rocks na White Cornish, Cornish na-enye nnukwu etiti na Rocks na-enye ọnụego ngwa ngwa nke uru. Ike ngwakọta a na-emepụta na-enye ohere mmepụta nke nnụnụ ejiji na arọ ozu a na-ere ahịa na izu 6-9 nke afọ.

N'otu aka ahụ, a na-eji ngwakọta dị n'etiti ụdị dị iche iche nke White Leghorn emepụta ìgwè atụrụ na-enye ọtụtụ àkwá ọcha maka ire ere na United States.

N'afọ 2013, otu nnyocha chọpụtara na ụdị ngwakọta na-adị ndụ na nkezi afọ 1.2 karịa ụdị dị ọcha.^[20]

John Scott na John L. Fuller mere nnyocha zuru ezu banyere Cocker Spaniels, Basenjis, na ngwakọta n'etiti ha.^[21]Ha chọpụtara na ngwakọta na-agba ọsọ karịa nne na nna ọ bụla, ikekwe n'ihi heterosis. Njirimara ndị ọzọ, dị ka obi na-akụ, egosighi heterosis ọ bụla - obi nkịta ahụ dị nso na nkezi nke ndị mụrụ ya - ikekwe n'ihi mmetụta mgbakwunye nke ọtụtụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.^[22]

Mgbe ụfọdụ ndị na-arụ ọrụ na mmemme ịzụlite nkịta anaghị ahụ heterosis bara uru.^[23]

N'ikwu ihe a niile, ọmụmụ anaghị enye ihe akaebe doro anya nke ike ngwakọta na nkịta. Nke a bụ n'ụzọ dị ukwuu n'ihi ihe nketa a na-amaghị ama nke ọtụtụ nkịta a na-eji eme ihe. Nsonaazụ dịgasị iche iche, na ụfọdụ nnyocha na-egosi uru na ndị ọzọ na-achọpụta na nkịta ndị a na-agwakọta na-enwekwu ọnọdụ mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa.^[24][25][26]

N'afọ 2014, nnyocha nke Centre for Integrative Ecology na Mahadum Deakin na Geelong, Victoria, kwubiri na ngwakọta intraspecific n'etiti subspecies Platycercus elegans flaveolus na P. e. elegans nke crimson rosella (P. elegans) nwere ike ịlụso ọrịa ọgụ karịa ndị ibe ha dị ọcha.^[27]

Ụmụ mmadụ niile yitere ibe ha nke ukwuu.[29][30][31] Michael Mingroni atụpụtala heterosis, n'ụdị ike ngwakọ jikọtara ya na mbelata akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ọkwa ọmụmụ, dị ka nkọwa nke mmetụta Flynn, ịrị elu na-aga n'ihu na nyocha IQ n'ụwa niile n'ime narị afọ nke 20,  [ntụgharị chọrọ] n'agbanyeghị. nyocha nke ọmụmụ itoolu chọpụtara na ọ dịghị ihe àmà na-egosi na inbreeding nwere mmetụta na IQ.^[28]

Okwu heterosis na-ebutekarị mgbagwoju anya na ọbụna esemokwu, karịsịa n'ịhọpụta anụ ụlọ, n'ihi na a na-ekwu mgbe ụfọdụ (na-ezighi ezi) na-ekwu na osisi na anụmanụ niile a kpụkọrọ akpụkọ dị "oke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa" karịa ndị mụrụ ha, n'ihi heterosis, [ntụgharị chọrọ]. mana nsogbu abụọ dị na nkwupụta a.

1. Dị ka otu isiokwu e bipụtara na akwụkwọ akụkọ Genome Biology si kwuo, "ịdị elu nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa" bụ okwu akọwaghị nke ọma na nke a na-anabataghị n'ozuzu ya n'ime ngalaba sayensị nke mkpụrụ ndụ akwụkwọ ndụ ihe nkesa.^[29] A na-akọwa okwu ahụike yiri ya nke ọma, mana ọ naghị adịkebe a ga-atụle ya n'onwe ya. Kama nke ahụ, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị na-eji ebumnuche, ọnụ ọgụgụ a na-atụle, dị ka ọnụ ọgụgụ mkpụrụ osisi na-emepụta, ọnụ ọgụgụ ntolite nke mkpụrụ, ma ọ bụ pasent nke ihe ndị dị ndụ na-adịgide ruo n'oge ọmụmụ.^[30] Site n'echiche a, osisi na anụmanụ na-egosipụta heterosis nwere ike ịnwe àgwà "dị elu", mana nke a anaghị adaba na ihe akaebe ọ bụla nke "ịdị elu nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa". Ojiji nke okwu "ịdị elu" bụ ihe a na-ahụkarị dịka ọmụmaatụ na ịzụlite ihe ọkụkụ, ebe a ghọtara ya nke ọma ka ọ pụtara osisi na-amị mkpụrụ nke ọma, nke siri ike maka ọrụ ugbo. Osisi dị otú ahụ nwere ike ịmị mkpụrụ nke ọma n'ugbo, mana o yikarịrị ka ọ ga-agbasi mbọ ike ịlanarị n'ọhịa, na-eme ka ojiji a ghere oghe maka nkọwa na-ezighi ezi. Na mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa mmadụ, ajụjụ ọ bụla gbasara "ịdị elu mkpụrụ ndụ ihe mere eme" bụ ọbụna nsogbu karịa n'ihi akụkọ ihe mere eme na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke nkwupụta ọ bụla dị otú ahụ. Ụfọdụ nwere ike ọbụna ịga n'ihu ịkọwa ya dị ka ikpe a na-enyo enyo na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, ọ bụghị sayensị.^[29]
2. Ọ bụghị ngwakọta niile na-egosipụta heterosis (lee ịda mbà n'obi).

Ihe atụ nke ikpe ndị a na-ejighị n'aka nke a na-enye na ngwakọta na ume ngwakọta bụ ịnyịnya ibu. Ọ bụ ezie na ịnyịnya ibu fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ mgbe niile na-enweghị ike ịmụ nwa, a na-eji ha akpọrọ ihe maka njikọta nke ike na àgwà nke dị iche na nke nne na nna ha ma ọ bụ ịnyịnya ibu. Ọ bụ ezie na àgwà ndị a nwere ike ime ka ha "dị elu" maka iji ya eme ihe ụfọdụ site n'aka ụmụ mmadụ, nsogbu enweghị ike ịmụ nwa na-egosi na ụmụ anụmanụ ndị a ga-apụ n'anya na-enweghị ntinye aka nke ụmụ mmadụ site na ịzụ anụmanụ, na-eme ka ha "n'okpuru" n'ihe gbasara nhọrọ okike.

• F1 ngwakọta
• Ngwakọta nke mkpụrụ ndụ ihe nketa
• Uru Heterozygote

1. ↑ Drought-tolerant hybrid seed offers farmers reprieve from hunger (en-US). CIMMYT (2019-03-06). Retrieved on 2023-01-19.
2. ↑ George Harrison Shull (1948). "What Is "Heterosis"?". Genetics 33 (5): 439–446. DOI:10.1093/genetics/33.5.439. PMID 17247290. 
3. ↑ Edmands (2006-11-15). "Between a rock and a hard place: evaluating the relative risks of inbreeding and outbreeding for conservation and management: RELATIVE RISKS OF INBREEDING AND OUTBREEDING" (in en). Molecular Ecology 16 (3): 463–475. DOI:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.03148.x. PMID 17257106. 
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1} (January 2009) "Altered circadian rhythms regulate growth vigour in hybrids and allopolyploids". Nature 457 (7227): 327–31. DOI:10.1038/nature07523. PMID 19029881.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Ni" defined multiple times with different content
5. ↑ ^{5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3} (November 2012) "Heterosis: emerging ideas about hybrid vigour". J. Exp. Bot. 63 (18): 6309–14. DOI:10.1093/jxb/ers291. PMID 23095992.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Baranwal" defined multiple times with different content
6. ↑ Crow, James F. (1948). "Alternative Hypotheses of Hybrid Vigor". Genetics 33 (5): 477–487. DOI:10.1093/genetics/33.5.477. PMID 17247292. 
7. ↑ Davenport CB (1908). "Degeneration, albinism and inbreeding". Science 28 (718): 454–5. DOI:10.1126/science.28.718.454-b. PMID 17771943. 
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1} Carr (2003-06-29). "Recent approaches into the genetic basis of inbreeding depression in plants" (in en). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 358 (1434): 1071–1084. DOI:10.1098/rstb.2003.1295. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 12831473. 
9. ↑ East EM (1908). "Inbreeding in corn". Reports of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiments Station for 1907: 419–428. 
10. ↑ Shull GH (1908). "The composition of a field of maize". Reports of the American Breeders Association: 296–301. 
11. ↑ Birchler J.A. (2003). "In search of the molecular basis of heterosis". The Plant Cell 15 (10): 2236–2239. DOI:10.1105/tpc.151030. PMID 14523245. 
12. ↑ ^{12.0 12.1} Crow, James F. (1998). "90 Years Ago: The Beginning of Hybrid Maize". Genetics 148 (3): 923–928. DOI:10.1093/genetics/148.3.923. PMID 9539413.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Crow" defined multiple times with different content
13. ↑ (October 2008) "Hybrid vigor and transgenerational epigenetic effects on early mouse embryo phenotype". Biol. Reprod. 79 (4): 638–48. DOI:10.1095/biolreprod.108.069096. PMID 18562704. 
14. ↑ (2007) "Inter- and intra-combinatorial regulation by transcription factors and microRNAs". BMC Genomics 8: 396. DOI:10.1186/1471-2164-8-396. PMID 17971223. 
15. ↑ ^{15.0 15.1} Fort (2016-01-01). "Disaggregating polyploidy, parental genome dosage and hybridity contributions to heterosis in Arabidopsis thaliana". The New Phytologist 209 (2): 590–599. DOI:10.1111/nph.13650. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 26395035. 
16. ↑ Duszynska (2013-04-01). "Gamete fertility and ovule number variation in selfed reciprocal F1 hybrid triploid plants are heritable and display epigenetic parent-of-origin effects". The New Phytologist 198 (1): 71–81. DOI:10.1111/nph.12147. ISSN 1469-8137. PMID 23368793. 
17. ↑ Wu (2021-07-01). "Yuan Longping (1930–2021)" (in en). Nature 595 (7865): 26. DOI:10.1038/d41586-021-01732-2. ISSN 0028-0836. 
18. ↑ ^{18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3} Liao (June 2021). "Innovation and development of the third-generation hybrid rice technology" (in en). The Crop Journal 9 (3): 693–701. DOI:10.1016/j.cj.2021.02.003.  Kpọpụta njehie: Invalid <ref> tag; name ":1" defined multiple times with different content
19. ↑ ^{19.0 19.1 19.2} Kim (January 2018). "Molecular Control of Male Fertility for Crop Hybrid Breeding" (in en). Trends in Plant Science 23 (1): 53–65. DOI:10.1016/j.tplants.2017.10.001. PMID 29126789. 
20. ↑ O'Neill (2013). "Longevity and mortality of owned dogs in England". The Veterinary Journal 198 (3): 638–43. DOI:10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.020. PMID 24206631. 
21. ↑ Spady (2008). "Canine Behavioral Genetics: Pointing Out the Phenotypes and Herding up the Genes". American Journal of Human Genetics 82 (1): 10–8. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2007.12.001. PMID 18179880. 
22. ↑ John Paul Scott and John L. Fuller. "Genetics and the Social Behavior of the Dog". 1965. p. 307 and p. 313.
23. ↑ Per Jensen. "The Behavioural Biology of Dogs". 2007. p. 179
24. ↑ Nicholas (2016). "Hybrid vigour in dogs?". Veterinary Journal 214: 77–83. DOI:10.1016/j.tvjl.2016.05.013. PMID 27387730. Retrieved on 29 July 2020. 
25. ↑ Nicholas (2012). "Survey of ophthalmic abnormalities in the labradoodle in the UK". The Veterinary Record 170 (15). DOI:10.1136/vr.100361. PMID 22278634. Retrieved on 29 July 2020. 
26. ↑ Sharkey (2020). Hybrid Vigor in Dogs. The Functional Dog Collaborative. Retrieved on 29 July 2020.
27. ↑ Australian Geographic (September 2014). Hybrid birds better at fighting disease than purebreds.
28. ↑ Kamin (1980). "Inbreeding depression and IQ." (in en). Psychological Bulletin 87 (3): 469–478. DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.87.3.469. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 7384341. 
29. ↑ ^{29.0 29.1} (July 2002) "Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease". Genome Biol. 3 (7): comment2007. DOI:10.1186/gb-2002-3-7-comment2007. PMID 12184798. 
30. ↑ (November 2005) "Inbreeding depression and heterosis in populations of Schiedea viscosa, a highly selfing species". J. Evol. Biol. 18 (6): 1434–44. DOI:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.00965.x. PMID 16313456.