Lihat sumber Arkeologi

Anda tidak memiliki hak akses untuk menyunting halaman ini, karena alasan berikut:
Your IP address is in a range that has been blocked on all Wikimedia Foundation wikis.
The block was made by ‪EPIC‬. The reason given is Open proxy/Webhost: See the help page if you are affected.
Start of block: 2 Juli 2024 08.48
Expiry of block: 2 Juli 2025 08.48
Your current IP address is 206.189.44.186. The blocked range is 206.189.32.0/20.
Harap sertakan semua perincian di atas dalam setiap pertanyaan yang Anda ajukan. If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the No open proxies global policy.
Otherwise, to discuss the block please post a request for review on Meta-Wiki. You could also send an email to the stewards VRT queue at stewards@wikimedia.org including all above details.
Anda dapat melihat atau menyalin sumber halaman ini.
{{Terjemah|Inggris}}{{bedakan|Anarkisme|Arsitektur}}
{{Ilmu}}
[[Berkas:Bulgandry Aboriginal Site.JPG|jmpl|Situs arkeologi di Australia]]

'''Arkeologi''' adalah ilmu yang mempelajari kebudayaan umat (manusia) yang terjadi di masa lalu melalui kajian sistematis atas data bendawi yang ditinggalkan. Kajian sistematis meliputi penemuan, dokumentasi, analisis, nilai-nilai budaya, norma, kebiasaan, [[hukum adat]] dan interpretasi data berupa [[artefak]] (budaya bendawi, seperti kapak batu dan bangunan [[candi]]) dan [[ekofak]] (benda lingkungan, seperti batuan, rupa muka bumi, dan [[fosil]]) maupun fitur (artefaktual yang tidak dapat dilepaskan dari tempatnya (situs arkeologi). Teknik penelitian yang khas adalah penggalian ([[ekskavasi]]) arkeologis, meskipun teknik [[survei]] masih dilakukan. Arkeolog adalah sebutan untuk para [[sarjana]], praktisi, atau ahli di bidang arkeologi.

Tujuan arkeologi beragam dan menjadi perdebatan yang panjang. Di antaranya adalah yang disebut dengan paradigma arkeologi, yaitu menyusun sejarah [[kebudayaan]], memahami perilaku manusia, serta mengerti proses perubahan budaya. Karena bertujuan untuk memahami budaya manusia, maka ilmu ini termasuk ke dalam kelompok ilmu [[humaniora]]. Meskipun demikian, terdapat berbagai ilmu bantu yang digunakan, antara lain [[sejarah]], [[antropologi]], [[geologi]] (dengan ilmu tentang lapisan pembentuk bumi yang menjadi acuan relatif umur suatu temuan arkeologis), [[geografi]], [[arsitektur]], [[paleoantropologi]] dan [[Antropologi biologis|bioantropologi]], [[fisika]] (antara lain dengan karbon c-14 untuk mendapatkan pertanggalan mutlak), ilmu [[metalurgi]] (untuk mendapatkan unsur-unsur suatu benda logam), serta [[filologi]] (mempelajari naskah lama).

Arkeologi pada masa sekarang merangkumi berbagai bidang yang berkait, contohnya penemuannya mayat yang dikubur akan menarik minat pakar dari berbagai bidang untuk mengkaji tentang pakaian dan jenis bahan digunakan, bentuk [[keramik]] dan cara penyebaran, kepercayaan melalui apa yang dikebumikan bersama mayat tersebut, pakar kimia yang mampu menentukan usia galian melalui cara seperti metode pengukuran karbon 14, sedangkan pakar genetik yang ingin mengetahui pergerakan perpindahan manusia purba, meneliti [[DNA|DNA-]]nya.

Secara khusus, arkeologi mempelajari budaya masa silam, yang sudah berusia tua, baik pada masa [[prasejarah]] (sebelum dikenal tulisan), maupun pada masa sejarah (ketika terdapat bukti-bukti tertulis). Pada perkembangannya, arkeologi juga dapat mempelajari budaya masa kini, sebagaimana dipopulerkan dalam kajian budaya bendawi modern (''modern material culture'').

Karena bergantung pada benda-benda peninggalan masa lalu, maka arkeologi sangat membutuhkan kelestarian benda-benda tersebut sebagai sumber data. Oleh karena itu, kemudian dikembangkan disiplin lain, yaitu pengelolaan sumberdaya arkeologi (''Archaeological Resources Management''), atau lebih luas lagi adalah pengelolaan sumberdaya budaya (''CRM, Culture Resources Management'').

== Definisi menurut tokoh ==
*[[Paul Bahn]]: Arkeologi adalah studi sistematis masa lalu berdasarkan budaya material dengan tujuan membongkar, menjelaskan dan mengklasifikasikan peninggalan budaya, mendeskripsikan bentuk dan perilaku masyarakat masa lalu serta memahami sejarah manusia.<ref>Baszley Bee. ''AJ10403 Pengantar Arkeologi: Pengertian Arkeologi.''</ref> 
*[[Grahame Clark]]: Arkeologi sebagai bentuk studi sistematis tentang material kuno untuk membentuk kembali sejarah.<ref>ibid. hlm 1</ref> Ini juga mengeksplorasi bagaimana kita bisa menjadi manusia dengan jiwa dan pikiran sebelum sistem tulisan ada.<ref>[http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeology101/a/archaeologyis.htm Arkeologi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627181339/http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeology101/a/archaeologyis.htm |date=2015-06-27 }}, ''archaeology.com''</ref>
* [[Brian Fagan]]: Arkeologi adalah [[ilmiah]] studi masa lalu tentang perilaku manusia purba dari masa lalu hingga saat ini.<ref>ibid. hlm. 2</ref>  Ini juga menempatkan semua manusia di awal yang sama.<ref>[http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeology101/a/archaeologyis.htm Tentang Arkeologi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627181339/http://archaeology.about.com/od/archaeology101/a/archaeologyis.htm |date=2015-06-27 }}, ''archaelogi.com''</ref>
* [[Cotrell Leonard]]: Arkeologi sebagai cerita tentang manusia dengan mengacu pada peninggalan seperti peralatan yang digunakan, [[monumen]], kerangka manusia dan segala sesuatu yang dihasilkan dari inovasi yang diciptakannya.
* [[Sigfried J. de Leat]]: Arkeologi sebagai disiplin ilmu dan merupakan cabang dari [[sejarah]].
* [[Nik Hassan Shuhaimi Nik Abd. Rahman]]: Awalnya suatu bentuk studi tentang material kuno melalui [[metode deskriptif]] [[sistematis]] sekitar abad ke-19 dan sekarang sebagai disiplin yang bertujuan untuk membentuk kembali sejarah budaya, cara hidup dan  proses budaya masyarakat [[prasejarah]], [[proto-historis]] dan sejarah dengan mempelajari [[artefak]] dan non-artefak serta melihatnya dalam konteks lingkungan.
* [[Walter Taylor]]: Arkeologi bukanlah sejarah atau [[antropologi]].  Berdiri sebagai disiplin ilmu tersendiri dengan metode dan kelompok teknik tertentu untuk mengumpulkan atau memperoleh informasi tentang [[budaya]].

== Sejarah perkembangan ==
=== Zaman Purbawanisme (prasejarah–1820) ===
'''Purbawanisme''' merupakan kombinasi kata dari 'purbawan' dan imbuhan dari bahasa Inggris '-isme'. Menurut Kamus [[Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka]], purbawan memiliki maksud sebagai orang yang mengkaji, mengumpul dan menjual barang-barang antik<ref>Nama, ''Kamus Dewan Bahasa Edisi Keempat.'' Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Kuala Lumpur. 2007. hlm. 1253</ref> manakala '-isme' bermaksud sifat dan kelakuan.<ref>ibid. hlm. 590</ref> Dapat disimpulkan bahwa 'purbawanisme' berarti sikap dan perilaku orang yang mempelajari, mengoleksi, dan menjual barang antik. Istilah yang lebih popular digunakan dalam bahasa Inggris adalah ''antiquity'' atau ''antiquarianism''. Istilah tersebut pertama kali muncul pada abad ke-15 sebagai salah satu cabang sejarah ''Renaissance Humanism.''<ref>Shaw, Ian. Jameson, Robert. ''A Dictionary of Archaelogy.'' Blackwell Publisher Ltd. USA. 1999. hlm. 65</ref>

Kegiatan purbawanisme yang pertama telah dilakukan oleh [[Nabonidus]] (555–538 SM), raja terakhir [[Babylon]] sebelum ditaklukan oleh [[Cyrus Agung]]. Dia sangat meminati sejarah peradaban Babylon dan telah menemukan kuil [[Naram-Sin]] yang dibangun 2200 tahun sebelum masa pemerintahannya.

Pada zaman pemerintahan [[Julius Caesar]], barang artefak seperti tempayan, senjata purba, dan perunggu merupakan beberapa hasil penemuan tentara Romawi semasa mengeledah kuburan kuno di tanah-tanah jajahan mereka seperti di [[Yunani]] dan [[Italia]]. [[Suetonis]] mencatatkan bahwa kegiatan pengumpulan barangan purba oleh Maharaja [[Augustus Caesar]]. Sementara itu, [[Strabo]] mengatakan bahawa Julius Caesar telah mendirikan daerah jajahan [[Romawi]] untuk tentara-tentaranya di [[Corinth]]. Setelah itu, kekayaan yang terdapat di dalam kuburan lama telah dijual kepada kolektor Romawi yang menghargai barang bersejarah Yunani.<ref>Hole, Frank. Heizer, Robert F. ''Arkeologi Prasejarah: Satu Pengenalan Ringkas.'' 1990. Selangor: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. hlm. 33</ref>

Pada abad ke-14 hingga 17 Masehi, '[[Cabinets of Curiosity]]' menjadi puncak minat publik terutama raja-raja monarki seperti Rudolf II, kaisar Romawi (memerintah dari tahun 1576–1612), Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria sedangkan dua koleksi barang yang terkenal adalah milik Ole Worm (15881654) dan Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680). Selama abad ke-15, minat yang tumbuh untuk mengumpulkan kekayaan dimulai di Italia dan berkembang di bawah pemerintahan para pendeta seperti Sixtus IV (1471–1484). Alexander VI, sebaliknya, mulai melakukan eksplorasi untuk menambah jumlah koleksinya. Hal itu telah menjadikan aktivitas sebagai budaya di antara orang kaya, pendeta dan orang-orang gereja dan ini menandai Zaman Reformasi atau 'Dilettanti' (kegembiraan dalam [[bahasa Italia]]).

=== Zaman arkeologi prasejarah (1820–1920) ===
'''Arkeologi prasejarah''' berkembang di Eropa dan Amerika Serikat. Bidang kepurbakalaan dewasa ini lebih menitikberatkan pada penggambaran dan rekonstruksi kehidupan lampau serta memandang budaya secara normatif. Hal tersebut juga diperkuat dengan adanya banyak teori yang dapat digunakan di lapangan. Singkatnya, sejarah perkembangan arkeologi saat ini lebih pada konstruksi dan penguatan metode penelitian sebagai hasil dari teori-teori yang dikumpulkan dari berbagai cabang. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa arkeologi merupakan bidang multidisiplin.

Dari disiplin geologi, gagasan lapisan tanah dipelopori oleh [[James Hutton]]<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12861/12861-h/12861-h.htm Hutton, James. 1785. Theory of the Earth]</ref> sedangkan Theory of Uniformity<ref>[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33224/33224-h/33224-h.htm Lyell, Charles. 1833. ''Principles of Geology.'']</ref> oleh [[Charles Lyell]] digunakan untuk mempelajari perkembangan arkeologi manusia.  Hal ini juga membuktikan bahwa pendapat Injil pada masa itu tidak akurat karena bagi mereka, keberadaan manusia adalah 4002 SM tetapi menurut studi geologi, umur bumi jauh lebih tua dari waktu yang dikemukakan oleh Injil.  [[Sistem Tiga Zaman]] yang diperkenalkan oleh [[Christian Jurgensen Thompsen]] telah memfasilitasi pembagian waktu berdasarkan artefak yaitu [[Zaman Batu]], [[Zaman Perunggu]] dan [[Zaman Besi]].

Namun, [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] pada tahun 1841 sebelumnya menganjurkan gagasan bahwa arkeologi manusia jauh lebih awal dari 6004 tahun.  Dia juga salah satu tokoh yang berpendapat bahwa arkeologi sejarah dapat dipetakan menurut periode geologi.  Hasilnya, studi stratigrafi dikembangkan lebih lanjut oleh William Smith di Kents Cavern, Inggris.

Teori Evolusi [[Charles Darwin]] dicetuskan awalnya dari matlamat ingin mengkaji kepurbakalaan manusia. Teorinya perihal asas mengenai proses evolusi manusia daripada spesis primat primitf kepada manusia modern dan dibukukan pada tahun 1871,The Descent of Man, yang sehingga kini terkesan dalam kajian asal usul manusia. Idea beliau juga menyebabkan kajian terhadap kepurbakalaan manusia dilakukan berdasarkan tinggalan kebudayaan.

Selama ini pula, arkeologi tua berkontribusi banyak pada perkembangan bidang tersebut. Di antaranya adalah teknik untuk memahami [[hieroglif Mesir|hieroglif]] dari studi [[Batu Rosetta]] oleh [[Jean-Francois Champollion]], penemuan patung besar [[Asiria]] dan perpustakaan [[tulisan paku]]  di [[Kuyunjik]] oleh Paul Emile Botta, Austen Henry Layard dan Henry Rawlinson, penemuan dan studi tentang sisa-sisa budaya [[Peradaban Maya|Maya]] di Yucatan, Meksiko oleh John Lloyd Stephen, penggalian situs Awamoa di [[Selandia Baru]] oleh Walter Mantell pada tahun 1852 dan yang terpenting, teknik penggalian sistematis oleh Jenderal August Lane-Fox Pitt-Rivers di Wor Barrow, Cranborne Chase di selatan Inggris.

Perkembangan terkini juga telah menyaksikan munculnya banyak museum dan kelompok penelitian arkeologi, seperti British Archaeological Association (1844), Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum (1852), Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC (1855), Peabody Museum, Harvard (1866), Egypt Exploration Society.  (1882), Museum Naturhistorisches, Wina (1882), dan Museum fur Volkerkunde, Berlin (1886).

=== Zaman arkeologi kuno (1920–1960) ===
'''Arkeologi kuno''' atau yang dikenal dengan arkeologi tradisional merupakan era dimana lebih banyak perbaikan dari sudut pandang teoritis dan metodologis.  Penggalian juga dilakukan dan temuan penting juga ditemukan dan dicatat, seperti penemuan makam Tutankhamun, penguburan Ur di Chalees dan gua prasejarah Lascaux.

Teknik survei seperti aplikasi fotografi dikembangkan oleh OGS Crawford, sedangkan dalam hal teknik penggalian, mereka lebih teliti dan lebih baik dari sebelumnya dalam hal penggalian, pencatatan, ilustrasi dan interpretasi yang dipopulerkan oleh Mortimer Wheeler di situs penggalian di Inggris selatan dan utara Prancis  antara 1934 hingga 1937.

Lebih banyak penelitian ilmiah mulai dilakukan dalam metodologi penelitian terutama dalam proyek penggalian di Inggris dan Prancis.  Lennart Von Post telah mengembangkan teknik rekonstruksi tumbuhan purba berdasarkan studi serbuk sari pada tahun 1930-an.  Teknik ini diperkenalkan lebih lanjut oleh Grahame Clark di Inggris, termasuk pendekatan aspek ekonomi yang digunakan dalam pemahaman masyarakat prasejarah pada tahun 1949 hingga 1951 di situs Star Carr, Yorkshire, Inggris bagian utara.

Setelah Perang Dunia II, metode penanggalan radiokarbon pertama kali diperkenalkan oleh Willard Libby.  Penanggalan menggunakan karbon-14 ini mengubah banyak informasi tentang masa lalu dan ini dapat dilihat di situs Perunggu Aegaen di Vinca, Beograd yang sebelumnya dianggap sebagai situs dari periode Neolitik Akhir dari tahun 1908 hingga 1912. Metode ini divalidasi dan diterima pada tahun 1970.

=== Zaman Arkeologi Baru (1960–2000) ===
'''Arkeologi baru''' diperkenalkan oleh Lewis Binford, seorang arkeolog asal Amerika Serikat dan David Clarke dari Inggris pada pertengahan 1960-an.

== Perkembangan Arkelogi Masa Kolonial di Indonesia ==
J.LA Brandes menjadi ahli arkeologi bangsa Belanda yang telah meletakkan dasar bagi perkembangan arkeologi Indonesia,khususnya dalam bidang epigrafi (tulisan kuno). Ketika masih di Belanda, Brandes telah mempelajari bahasa Jawa Kuno dan prasasti. Karena itulah, setibanya di Hindia Belanda (Jawa) ia sudah tidak asing lagi dengan prasasti dan mulai menggarap prasasti- prasasti yang disimpan di Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (sekarang Museum Nasional di Jakarta). Karyanya ini kemudian diterbitkan di dalam "Aanteekeningen Omtrent de op Verschillende Voorwerpen Voorkomende Inscriptie en een Voorlopigen Inventaries der Beschreven Steenen" dalam Catalogus der Archeologische Verzameling va het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, edisi W.P. Groeneveldt tahun 1887.

Pada tahun 1894 Belanda menyerbu Lombok termasuk menduduki istana Cakranegara. Dalam penyerbuan itu Brandes 
disertakan- dengan tujuan untuk menyelamatkan benda-benda tinggalan budaya masa lampau, termasuk naskah-naskah kuno yang tersimpan di istana. Pada waktu itulah Brandes berhasil menemukan naskah Nagarakertagama yang isinya sangat penting bagi penulisan sejarah Majapahit. Naskah ini diterbitkannya pada tahun 1902 dalam bentuk asli, yaitu dalam aksara Bali. Naskah lain yang juga cukup penting bagi penulisan sejarah adalah Pararaton yang diterbitkannya lebih dahulu pada tahun 1896.

Pada tahun 1901 pemerintah Hindia Belanda membentuk sebuah komisi yang bernama Commissie in Nederlandsch Indie voor Oudheidkundige Onderzoek op Java en Madoera. Komisi ini bertugas menangani masalah-masalah kepurbakalaan yang ditemukan di Jawa dan Madura. Oleh pemerintah Hindia Belanda, Brandes diangkat sebagai Ketua Komisi dan dibantu oleh dua orang anggota, yaitu J. Knebel dan H.L. Leydie Melville Komisi inilah yang menjadi cikal bakal berdirinya Dinas Purbakala yang sekarang berkembang menjadi Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi

Brandes meninggal pada tahun, 1905 ketika masih menjabat sebagai Ketua Komisi. Sebagai ketua, banyak jasanya bagi perkembangan arkeologi Indonesia dan juga penyelamatan benda-benda tinggalan budaya masa lampau terutama yang ditemukan di Jawa dan Madura.
== Perkembangan Arkelogi Masa Modern di Indonesia ==
Di Indonesia, perkembangan arkeologi dimulai dari lembaga-lembaga yang bergerak di bidang kebudayaan, seperti [[Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen]] yang kemudian di [[Jakarta]] mendirikan [[museum]] tertua, sekarang menjadi [[Museum Nasional Indonesia]]. Lembaga pemerintah pada [[masa Kolonial]] yang bergerak di bidang arkeologi adalah [[Oudheidkundige Dienst]] yang banyak membuat survei dan pemugaran atas bangunan-bangunan purbakala terutama [[candi]]. Pada [[masa Kemerdekaan]], lembaga tersebut menjadi [[Dinas Purbakala]] hingga berkembang sekarang menjadi berbagai lembaga seperti [[Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala]] dan [[Balai Arkeologi]] yang tersebar di daerah-daerah dan [[Direktorat Purbakala]] serta [[Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Arkeologi Nasional]] di Jakarta. Di samping itu, terdapat 6 (enam) perguruan tinggi yang membuka jurusan arkeologi untuk mendidik tenaga [[sarjana]] di bidang arkeologi. Perguruan-perguruan tinggi tersebut adalah [[Universitas Indonesia]] (Departemen Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya), [[Universitas Gadjah Mada]] (Departemen Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya), [[Universitas Hasanuddin]] (Departemen Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya), [[Universitas Udayana]] (Jurusan Arkeologi, Fakultas Sastra dan Budaya), [[Universitas Jambi]] (Jurusan Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya), dan [[Universitas Haluoleo]] (Jurusan Arkeologi, Fakultas Ilmu Budaya).

Ahli arkeologi Indonesia terhimpun dalam [[Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia]] atau IAAI. Tokoh-tokoh arkeologi Indonesia yang terkenal antara lain adalah [[Soekmono|R. Soekmono]] yang mengepalai pemugaran [[Candi Borobudur]], dan [[Raden Pandji Soejono|R.P. Soejono]], yang merupakan pendiri dan ketua Ikatan Ahli Arkeologi Indonesia pertama dan mantan kepala [[Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional]].

Disiplin Arkeologi Indonesia masih secara kuat diwarnai dengan pembagian kronologis, yaitu periode [[Prasejarah]], periode [[Sejarah Nusantara pada era kerajaan Hindu-Buddha|Klasik]] (zaman Hindu-Buddha), periode [[Islam]], serta periode [[Kolonial]]. Oleh karena itu, dalam arkeologi Indonesia dikenal spesialisasi menurut periode, yaitu [[Arkeologi Prasejarah]], [[Arkeologi Klasik]], [[Arkeologi Islam]], serta [[Arkeologi Kolonial]]. Satu keistimewaan dari arkeologi Indonesia adalah masuknya disiplin [[Epigrafi]], yang menekuni pembacaan [[prasasti]] kuno. Pada perkembangan sekarang telah berkembang minat-minat khusus seperti [[etnoarkeologi]], [[arkeologi bawah air]], dan [[arkeometri]]. Terdapat pula sub-disiplin yang berkembang karena persinggungan dengan ilmu lain, seperti [[Arkeologi Lingkungan]] atau [[Arkeologi Ekologi]], [[Arkeologi Ekonomi]], [[Arkeologi Seni]], [[Arkeologi Demografi]], dan [[Arkeologi Arsitektur]].<!-- Mulai terjemahkan di sini:
Archaeology or archeology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes.

The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human culture, understand culture history, chronicle cultural evolution, and study human behaviour and ecology, for both prehistoric and historic societies.

Usage
As with words such as encyclopedia and gynaecology, archaeology traditionally has an ae combination; however, unlike other words, the ae is all but universally retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling archeology is not predominant in United States dictionaries and would look quite odd to most Americans. Like the claim that theater refers to a building and theatre refers to the performing arts, the belief that archeology is an Americanism is little more than an urban myth. The traditional spelling, archaeology, continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S., even more so than theatre (the alternate spelling of which, while considered acceptable, is preferred less often than not).

Ontology and definition
In the Old World, archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in antiquarianism and the study of Latin and Ancient Greek provided it with a natural affinity with the field of history. In the New World, archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human societies and is treated as one of the four subfields of Anthropology. The other subfields of anthropology supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner. These subfields are cultural anthropology, which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; linguistics, which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and physical anthropology, which includes the study of human evolution and physical and genetic characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, paleobotany, geography, geology, art history, and classics.

Archaeology has been described as a craft that enlists the sciences to illuminate the humanities. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist Walter Taylor asserted that "Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information".

Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In England, archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown New York City archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground. Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of writing for that culture. Historical archaeology is the study of post- writing cultures.

In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with ethnography. This is the case in large parts of North America, Oceania, Siberia, and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. Kennewick Man is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture. In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, history and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at Hadrian's Wall.

Importance and applicability
Most of human history is not described by any written records. Writing did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced civilisations. In contrast Homo sapiens have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of Homo for millions of years (see Human evolution). These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of agriculture, cult practices of folk religion, the rise of the first cities - must come from archaeology.

Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the bureaucracy of court or temple. The literacy even of an aristocracy has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.

In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong aesthetic appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies.

This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as Raiders of the Lost Ark, The Mummy, and King Solomon's Mines. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of pseudoscience are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology.

Goals
There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information.

The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground.

Academic sub-disciplines
As with most academic disciplines, there are a very large number of archaeological sub-disciplines characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. lithic analysis, music, archaeobotany), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. Near Eastern archaeology, Medieval archaeology), other thematic concern (e.g. landscape archaeology), or a specific archaeological culture or civilisation (e.g. Egyptology).

Cultural resources management
Cultural resources management (CRM) (also called heritage management in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the United States and much of that in western Europe as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on public land or involving public funds may damage an unstudied archaeological site.

The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 PPG 16 has required planners to consider archaeology as a material consideration in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.

Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of cultural sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline.

Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour.

Field methods

Survey
A modern archaeological project often begins with a survey. Regional survey is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. Site survey is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and middens, within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. Gordon Willey pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the Viru Valley of coastal Peru, and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ sampling methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as settlement patterns and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into maps, which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution.

The simplest survey technique is surface survey. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as augers, corers, and shovel test pits.

Aerial survey is conducted using cameras attached to aircraft, balloons, or even kites. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. Plants growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as middens) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening grain, which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs infrared, ground-penetrating radar wavelengths, and thermography.

Geophysical survey is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. Magnetometers detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron artefacts, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the electrical resistivity of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are moist below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity.

Although some archaeologists consider the use of metal detectors to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on English Civil War battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context. In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the Portable Antiquities Scheme.

Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses side-scan sonar.

Excavation
Archaeological excavation existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their provenance or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see Primary Laws of Archaeology). Similarly, their association, or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its stratigraphy; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct cultures, artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries ethical concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. Sampling is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as backhoes ( JCBs), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the topsoil ( overburden), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.

The next task is to form a site plan and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural subsoil are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible archaeological section for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the context of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

Post-excavation analysis
Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published.

At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them typologically and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through archaeological science, meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of zooarchaeology, paleoethnobotany, and palynology), while any texts can usually be deciphered.

These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.

History of archaeology
The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible.

Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts.

It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including Augustus Pitt Rivers and William Flinders Petrie.

This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as Mortimer Wheeler, whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained.

During the 20th century, the development of urban archaeology and then rescue archaeology have been important factors, as has the development of archaeological science, which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain.

Archaeological theory
There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as cultural, or culture, history, which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as Lewis Binford, rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with hypothesis testing and the scientific method very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.

In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as post-processual archaeology. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate.

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought, phenomenology, postmodernism, agency theory, cognitive science, Functionalism, gender-based and Feminist archaeology, and Systems theory.

Public archaeology
Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as King Solomon's Mines) and films (such as The Mummy and Raiders of the Lost Ark).

Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as Copán and the Valley of the Kings, but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern survey, excavation, and data processing techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as " pseudoarchaeology".

Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of Indiana Jones films and Tomb Raider games as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require.

In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as Time Team and Meet the Ancestors have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest. Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary health and safety and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern building site with tight deadlines. Certain charities and local government bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial training excavations and archaeological holiday tours.

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group.

Pseudoarchaeology
Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of processual archaeology, or the specific critiques of it contained in Post-processualism.

An example of this type is the writing of Erich von Däniken. His Chariots of the Gods (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as palaeocontact theory, is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

Looting
Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of hoards of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the illicit antiquities trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage.

The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor Third World countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient Sinagua people of Arizona, clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the metal detector a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.

Public outreach
Motivated by a desire to halt looting, curb pseudoarchaeology, and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting public-outreach campaigns. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation.

The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.

Descendant peoples
In the United States, examples such as the case of Kennewick Man have illustrated the tensions between Native Americans and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of indigenous peoples likely to be descended from those under study.

Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.

While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

Repatriation
A new trend in the heated controversy between First Nations groups and scientists is the repatriation of native artifacts to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 Algonquian nations in the Ottawa area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in Kanawagi, Quebec, to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years.

The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including beads, tools and weapons, were originally excavated from various sites in the Ottawa Valley, including Morrison and the Allumette Islands. They had been part of the Canadian Museum of Civilization’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional redcedar and birchbark boxes lined with redcedar chips, muskrat and beaver pelts.

Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement (source: Canadian Geographic Online).-->

== Catatan ==
<references group="note"/>

==Referensi==
{{Reflist}}

== Lihat pula ==
* [[Candi]]
* [[Museum]]
* [[Prasasti]]
* [[Prasasti Nusantara]]
* [[Taman Arkeologi Ramat Rachel]]
* [[Pemalsuan karya seni]]
* [[Daftar arkeolog]]
* [[Arkeologi maritim]]

== Pranala luar ==
* {{id}} [http://arkeologi.web.id Arkeologi Indonesia - situs arkeologi Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180729061900/http://www.arkeologi.web.id/ |date=2018-07-29 }}
* {{id}} [http://arkeologi.palembang.go.id Arkeologi Palembang - situs balai arkeologi Palembang] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223013428/http://arkeologi.palembang.go.id/ |date=2015-12-23 }}

{{Ilmu sosial}}

[[Kategori:Arkeologi| ]]
Templat yang digunakan di halaman ini:
Templat:Ambox (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Bedakan (sunting)
Templat:Category-inline (sunting)
Templat:Hlist/styles.css (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Icon (sunting)
Templat:Id (lihat sumber) (semi-dilindungi)
Templat:Ikon (sunting)
Templat:Ilmu (sunting)
Templat:Ilmu sosial (sunting)
Templat:Lang2iso (sunting)
Templat:Languageicon (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Link language (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Main other (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Mw lang (sunting)
Templat:NOINDEX (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Navbox (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Nowrap (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Portal-inline (sunting)
Templat:Reflist (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Reflist/styles.css (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Sidebar with collapsible lists (sunting)
Templat:Terjemah (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:Webarchive (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Templat:• (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Arguments (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Check for unknown parameters (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Distinguish (sunting)
Modul:Hatnote (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Hatnote/styles.css (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Hatnote list (sunting)
Modul:Icon (sunting)
Modul:Icon/data (sunting)
Modul:Message box (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Message box/ambox.css (sunting)
Modul:Message box/configuration (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Mw lang (sunting)
Modul:Navbar (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Navbar/configuration (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Navbar/styles.css (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Navbox (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Navbox/configuration (sunting)
Modul:Navbox/styles.css (sunting)
Modul:Portal (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Portal-inline (lihat sumber) (semi-dilindungi)
Modul:Portal/images/i (sunting)
Modul:Sidebar (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Sidebar/configuration (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Sidebar/styles.css (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:TableTools (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Unsubst (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Webarchive (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Modul:Yesno (lihat sumber) (dilindungi)
Kembali ke Arkeologi.
Diperoleh dari "https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkeologi"