Դիտել Մասնակից:AstRosyan/Ավազարկղ էջի աղբյուրը

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'''Տնտեսական գլոբալացումը''' հանդիսանում է գլոբալացման տեսական մեկնաբանության մեջ 3 հիմնական չափորոշիչները մեկը քաղաքական գլոբալացում և մշակութային գլոբալացում հասկացությունների, ինչպես նաև ընդհանուր առմամբ գլոբալացում հասկացության հետ միասին։.<ref name="Ritzer2008-146">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKnmvRATtfAC&pg=PA146|title=The Blackwell Companion to Globalization|date=15 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-76642-2|page=146|chapter=Studying Globalization: Methodological Issues|first=Salvatore|last=Babones|editor=George Ritzer}}</ref>
Տնտեսական գլոբալացումը կապված է լայնորեն տարածված ապրանքների, կապիտալի, ծառայությունների, տեխնոլոգիայի և տեղեկատվության միջազգային մեծ հոսքերի հետ։ Սա հանդիսանում է ազգային, տարածաշրջանային և տեղական տնտեսությունների աճող տնտեսական ինտեգրացիա և փոխկախվածություն ողջ աշխարհում, որը կատարվում է ապրանքների, ծառայությունների, տեխնոլոգիաների և կապիտալի միջսահմանային շարժման ինտենսիվության բարձրացմամբ։<ref name="Joshi, Rakesh Mohan 19309">{{cite book|first=Rakesh Mohan |last=Joshi|title=International Business|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AL9cPgAACAAJ}}|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press, Incorporated|isbn=978-0-19-568909-9}}</ref> Տնտեսական գլոբալացումը առաջին հերթին ներառում է արտադրության, ֆինանսների, շուկաների, տեխնոլոգիայի, կազմակերպական կառուցվածքների, ինստիտուտների, կազմակերպությունների և աշխատուժի  գլոբալացումը։<ref name="James et al., vols. 1-4 2007">James et al., vols. 1–4 (2007)</ref>

Չնայած տնտեսական գլոբալացումը սկսել է զարգացում ապրել միջազգային առևտրի առաջացման պահից, ավելի արագ տեմպերով է սկսել զարգանալ միջքաղաքային տրանսպորտի զարգացման, հեռահաղորդակցության կատարելագործման, արդի տնտեսության մեջ ֆիզիկական կապիտալի փոխարեն տեղեկատվական կապիտալի կարևորության մակարդակի բարձրացման, ինչպես նաև գիտության և տեխնիկայի զարգացմանը զուգահեռ։{{sfn|Gao|2000|p=4}} Գլոբալացման տեմպերրը արագացան Սակագների և առևտրի գլխավոր համաձայնագրի և Առևտրի համաշխարհային կազմակերպության շրջանակներում, որում պետությունները աստիճանաբար նվազեցնում են ապրանքային շրջանառության սահմանափակումները, ինչպես նաև բացում են իրենց ընթացիկ հաշիվներ և կապիտալի հաշիվները։ {{sfn|Gao|2000|p=4}} Վերջերս տեղի ունեցած այս բումին մեծապես աջակցել են զարգացած տնտեսություն ունեցող երկրները՝ ներգրավվելով զարգացող տնտեսություն ունեցող երկրներին արտասահմանյան ուղիղ ներդրումների, բիզնեսի իրականացման գների նվազեցման, առևտրային սահմանփակումների իջեցման և շատ դեպքերում միջսահմանային միգրացիայի միջոցով։

== Գլոբալացման էվոլյուցիա ==
{{Main|Գլոբալացման պատմություն}}

=== Պատմություն===

Միջազգային [[ապրանքային բորսա]]ները, աշխատանքի և կապիտալի շուկաները ձևավորում են տնտեսությունը և սահմանում են տնտեսական գլոբալացումը։<ref name=whatis/>

Մ․թ․ա 6500թ –ից սկսած [[Սիրիա]]յում մարդիկ առևտուր էին անում անասուններով, գործիքներով և այլ իրերով։ [[Միջագետք]]ի հին հասարակությունում՝ [[Շումեր]]ում, ժետոններով առևտրի համակարգը առևտրային փողերի առաջին ձևերից էր։ Աշխատանքի շուկան բաղկացած էր աշխատողներից, գործատուներից, աշխատավարձից, եկամուտներից, առաջարկից և պահանջարկից։ Աշխատուժի առաջին շուկաներում աշխատողներին ապահովում էին գյուղատնտեսական մշակաբույսերի աճեցման և անասունների բուծման հետ առնչվող աշխատանքներով, որոնք հետագայում պետք է վաճառվեին տեղական շուկայում։ Կապիտալի շուկան առաջացավ արդյունաբերության առանձին ճյուղերում, որտեղ պահանջվում էր որոշակի ռեսուրսներ կոնկրետ ֆերմերների հնարավորությունների ընդլայնման համար։<ref name=theeffects/>

=== Տեխնոլոգիա ===
Գլոբալիզացիան մարդկանց միջև փոխկապակցվածության ստեղծումն ու ամրապնդում է աշխարհում՝ անկախ երկրների միջև ֆիզիկական սահմաններից։<ref>[Sumaira Aman 2017].</ref>

Տնտեսական գլոբալացման այս առավելությունը խաթարվեց [[Առաջին համաշխարհային պատերազմ]]ի պատճառով. Համաշխարհային տնտեսական ուժերի մեծ մասը կազմավորեցին [[Հովանավորման համակարգ|հովանավորչական]] տնտեսական քաղաքականություններ և ներկայացրին այն առևտրային խոչընդոտները, որոնք  դանդաղեցրին առևտրի ծավալների աճը մինչև լճացում։{{sfn|CEPAL|2002|p=105}} Սա հանգեցրեց համաշխարհային առևտրի աճի դանդաղմանը և նույնիսկ հանգեցրեց այն բանին, որ որոշ երկրներ սահմանափակումներ մտցրին ներգաղթի նկատմամբ։ Մինչ 1970-ականները գլոբալացումը ամբողջությամբ չվերադարձավ իր նախկին դիրքերին, երբ կառավարությունները սկսեցին ընդգծել առևտրի առավելությունները։{{sfn|Raynolds|Murray|Wilkinson|2007|p=3}} Այսօր գիտատեխնիկական առաջընթացի շարունակական բնույթը հանգեցրել է համաշխարհային առևտրի ծավալների արագ աճին։{{sfn|Raynolds|Murray|Wilkinson|2007|p=15}}

Երեք գործոններ են առաջարկվել տնտեսական գլոբալացման արագացման համար՝ գիտության և տեխնիկայի առաջընթացը, տնտեսական բարեփոխումներ, որոնք միտված են շուկային և բազմազգ կորպորացիաների ներդրումները։{{sfn|Raynolds|Murray|Wilkinson|2007|p=3}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Vladimir|title=The world transformed 1945 to the present|date=1 May 2017|publisher=Michael H.hunt|pages=427–429|edition=Second}}</ref>

1956թ բեռնարկղերի միջոցով փոխադրման գյուտը, ինչպես նաև բեռնափոխադրող նավերի չափերի մեծացումը հանդիսացան բեռնափոխադրման ծախսերի նվազման հիմնական պատճառն էին։<ref name=racebottom/>{{sfn|Gao|2000}}

=== Քաղաքականություն և կառավարություն ===

1947թ․ նախաձեռնված [[Առևտրի համաշխարհային կազմակերպություն|ԱՀԿ]]ի/Սակագների և առևտրի գլխավոր համաձայնագրի շրջանակներում <ref name=dutchdata>{{cite web|url=https://verdragenbank.overheid.nl/en/Treaty/Details/006960.html|work=Government of the Netherlands|access-date=30 December 2020|title=General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Treaty data}}</ref> մասնակից պետությունները թուլացրին իրենց  [[սակագին|սակագնային]] և ոչ սակագնային խոչընդոտները առևտրի նկատմամբ։ Իրականում, Սակագների և առևտրի գլխավոր հա��աձայնագրի համար էական է ամենաբարենպաստ ազգի գաղափարը.<ref name="cebi02">{{cite journal |last1=Cebi |first1=Pinar |last2=Ludema |first2=Rodney D. |title=The Rise and Fall of the Most-Favored-Nation Clause |journal=Office of Economics Working Paper |publisher=U.S. INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION |issue=2002–06–B |url=https://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/ec0206b.pdf}}</ref><ref name="unctad10">{{cite journal |title=MOST-FAVOURED NATION TREATMENT |journal=UNCTAD Series on Issues in International Investment Agreements II |date=2010 |url=https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/diaeia20101_en.pdf |publisher=UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT}}</ref> Կազմակերպությանը միանալու համար պետությունները ստիպված եղան անցում կատարել ''[[պլանային տնտեսություն]]''ից ''[[շուկայական տնեստություն|շուկայական տնտեսության]]''ը՝ հատկապես [[ԽՍՀՄ փլուզում]]ից հետո։<ref name="irwin17">{{cite book |last1=Irwin |first1=Douglas A. |title=Clashing Over Commerce: A History of US Trade Policy |date=November 2017 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref><ref name=irwin60>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB117607482355263550|title=GATT Turns 60|last=Irwin|first=Douglas A.|date=2007-04-09|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=2017-10-28|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref>

1986թ հոկտեմբերի 27-ին [[Լոնդոնի ֆոնդային բորսա]]ն հրապարակեց նոր կանոնակարգված օրենքներ, որոնք հնարավորություն տվեցին [[Ֆինանսական շուկա|շուկաներ]]ին գլոբալ մակարդակում փոխկապակցվել, որով ակնկալում էին շուկայի ակտիվության ծավալների աճին։ Տնտեսության մեջ այս երևույթը անվանում են Մեծ պայթյուն։

By the time the [[World Trade Organization]] was established in 1994 as the baton was passed from the GATT,<ref name=dutchdata/> it had grown to 128 countries, including [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Slovenia]]. The year 1995 saw the WTO pass the [[General Agreement on Trade in Services]], while the 1998 defeat of the [[OECD]]'s [[Multilateral Agreement on Investment]] was a hiccup on the route to economic globalization.

[[Multinational corporations]] reorganized production to take advantage of these opportunities. Labor-intensive production migrated to areas with lower labor costs,<ref name="elsby13">{{cite journal |doi=10.24148/wp2013-27|title=The Decline of the U.S. Labor Share|year=2013|last1=Elsby|first1=Michael W. L.|last2=Hobijn|first2=Bart|last3=Sahin|first3=Aysegul|journal=Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, Working Paper Series|pages=01–45|doi-access=free}}</ref> especially China,<ref name="autor13">{{cite journal |doi=10.1257/aer.103.6.2121|title=The China Syndrome: Local Labor Market Effects of Import Competition in the United States|year=2013|last1=Autor|first1=David H.|last2=Dorn|first2=David|last3=Hanson|first3=Gordon H.|journal=American Economic Review|volume=103|issue=6|pages=2121–2168|s2cid=2498232|doi-access=free}}</ref> later followed by other functions as skill levels increased. Networks raised the level of wealth consumption and geographical mobility. This highly dynamic worldwide system had powerful ramifications.<ref name=vt17>{{cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Vladimir|title=The world transformed 1945 to the present|date=1 May 2017|publisher=Michael H. Hunt|pages=427–429|edition=Second}}</ref> The [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999]] and associated [[1999 Seattle WTO protests]] were a significant step on the road to economic globalization.<ref name="nsam">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Noah |title=The Dark Side of Globalization: Why Seattle's 1999 Protesters Were Right |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/01/the-dark-side-of-globalization-why-seattles-1999-protesters-were-right/282831/ |publisher=The Atlantic Monthly Group |date=6 January 2014}}</ref>

The [[China and the World Trade Organization|People's Republic of China]] (2001) and the last remnants of ex-Soviet bloc countries like [[Ukraine]] (2008) and [[Russia]] (2012) were admitted much later to the WTO process after painful structural reforms.

The [[Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting]], which entered into force on 1 July 2018, is an effort to harmonize tax regimes in order to prevent multi-national firms from taking advantage of loopholes like Ireland's [[Ireland as a tax haven#Green Jersey|Green Jersey BEPS tool]].

== Global actors ==

=== International governmental organizations ===

An [[intergovernmental organization]] or [[Intergovernmental organization|international governmental organization]] (IGO) refers to an entity created by treaty, involving two or more nations, to work in good faith, on issues of common interest. IGO's strive for peace, security and deal with economic and social questions.<ref name=whatis>{{Cite news|url=https://hls.harvard.edu/dept/opia/what-is-public-interest-law/public-service-practice-settings/public-international-law/intergovernmental-organizations-igos/|title=Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)|newspaper=Harvard Law School|access-date=2020-06-12}}</ref> Examples include: [[United Nations|The United Nations]], [[World Bank|The World Bank]] and on a regional level [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|The North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] among others.

=== International non-governmental organizations (NGOs) ===
:{{Main|International non-governmental organization}}

International non-governmental organizations include charities, non-profit advocacy groups, business associations, and cultural associations. International charitable activities increased after World War II and on the whole NGOs provide more economic aid to developing countries than developed country governments.

=== Businesses ===

Since the 1970s, multinational businesses have increasingly relied on [[outsourcing]] and subcontracting across vast geographical spaces, as [[supply chain]]s are global and intermediate products are produced. Firms also engage in inter-firm alliances and rely on foreign research and development. This in contrast to past periods where firms kept production internalized or within a localized geography. Innovations in communications and transportation technology, as well as greater economic openness and less government intervention have made a shift away from internalization more feasible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brooks|first=Stephen G.|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7sjz7|title=Producing Security: Multinational Corporations, Globalization, and the Changing Calculus of Conflict|date=2005|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=|isbn=978-0-691-13031-6|location=|pages=1–46}}</ref> Additionally, businesses going global learn the tools to effectively interact in a [[cultural agility|culturally agile]] way with people of many diverse cultural backgrounds.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caligiuri|first=Paula|date=2013|title=Developing culturally agile global business leaders|url=https://www.econbiz.de/Record/developing-culturally-agile-global-business-leaders-caligiuri-paula/10010166200|journal=Organizational Dynamics : A Quarterly Review of Organizational Behavior for Professional Managers|series=Organizational dynamics : a quarterly review of organizational behavior for professional managers. - New York, NY : Pergamon, Elsevier Science, ISSN 0090-2616, ZDB-ID 1930692. - Vol. 42.2013, 3, p. 175-182|volume=42|issue=3}}</ref>

=== Migrants ===

International migrants transfer significant amounts of money through [[remittances]] to lower-income relatives. Communities of migrants in the destination country often provide new arrivals with information and ideas about how to earn money. In some cases, this has resulted in disproportionately high representation of some ethnic groups in certain industries, especially if economy success encourages more people to move from the source country. Movement of people also spreads technology and aspects of business culture, and moves accumulated financial assets.

== Impact ==

=== Economic growth and poverty reduction ===

Economic growth accelerated and poverty declined globally following the acceleration of globalization. {{quote|Per capita GDP growth in the post-1980 globalizers accelerated from 1.4 percent a year in the 1960s and 2.9 percent a year in the 1970s to 3.5 percent in the 1980s and 5.0 percent in the 1990s. This acceleration in growth is even more remarkable given that the rich countries saw steady declines in growth from a high of 4.7 percent in the 1960s to 2.2 percent in the 1990s. Also, the non-globalizing developing countries did much worse than the globalizers, with the former's annual growth rates falling from highs of 3.3 percent during the 1970s to only 1.4 percent during the 1990s. This rapid growth among the globalizers is not simply due to the strong performances of China and India in the 1980s and 1990s—18 out of the 24 globalizers experienced increases in growth, many of them quite substantial."<ref name="International Monetary Fund">{{cite web|last1=Dollar | first1=David| last2=Kraay | first2=Aart|title=Trade, Growth, and Poverty|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2001/09/dollar.htm|work=Finance and Development|publisher=International Monetary Fund|access-date=6 June 2011}}</ref>}}

[[File:Newest one growth rate.png|thumb|right|300px|Growth Rate of Real GDP per capita]]

According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], growth benefits of economic globalization are widely shared.  While several globalizers have seen an increase in inequality, most notably [[China]], this increase in inequality is a result of domestic liberalization, restrictions on internal migration, and agricultural policies, rather than a result of international trade.<ref name="International Monetary Fund" />

Poverty has been reduced as evidenced by a 5.4 percent annual growth in income for the poorest fifth of the population of Malaysia.  Even in [[China]], where inequality continues to be a problem, the poorest fifth of the population saw a 3.8 percent annual growth in income.  In several countries, those living below the dollar-per-day poverty threshold declined. In [[China]], the rate declined from 20 to 15 percent and in Bangladesh the rate dropped from 43 to 36 percent.{{Citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=December 2018}}{{when|date=December 2018}}

Globalizers are narrowing the per capita income gap between the rich and the globalizing nations. [[China]], [[India]], and [[Bangladesh]], some of the newly industrialised nations in the world, have greatly narrowed inequality due to their economic expansion.<ref name="International Monetary Fund"/>

=== Global supply chain ===
{{Main|Global Value Chain}}
The global supply chain consists of complex interconnected networks that allow companies to produce handle and distribute various goods and services to the public worldwide.

Corporations manage their supply chain to take advantage of cheaper costs of production. A supply chain is a system of organizations, people, activities, information, and resources involved in moving a product or service from [[Vendor (supply chain)|supplier]] to [[customer]]. Supply chain activities involve the transformation of [[natural resource]]s, [[raw material]]s, and components into a finished product that is delivered to the end customer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kozlenkova|first1=Irina V.|last2=Hult|first2=G. Tomas M.|last3=Lund|first3=Donald J.|last4=Mena|first4=Jeannette A.|last5=Kekec|first5=Pinar|date=12 May 2015|title=The Role of Marketing Channels in Supply Chain Management|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/276212454|journal=Journal of Retailing|volume=91|issue=4|pages=586–609|doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2015.03.003|issn=0022-4359}}</ref> Supply chains link [[value chain]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Supply chain network economics : dynamics of prices, flows and profits|last=Anna.|first=Nagurney|date=1 January 2006|publisher=Edward Elgar Pub|isbn=978-1845429164|oclc=317598837}}</ref> Supply and demand can be very fickle, depending on factors such as the weather, consumer demand, and large orders placed by multinational corporations.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Spieldoch|first=Alexandra|year=2007|title=A Row to Hoe: The Gender Impact of Trade Liberalization on our Food System, Agricultural Markets and Women's Human Rights|journal=International Gender and Trade Network}}</ref>

=== Labor conditions and environment ===

==== "Race to the bottom" ====
Globalization is sometimes perceived as a cause of a phenomenon called the "[[race to the bottom]]" that implies that to minimize cost and increase delivery speed, businesses tend to locate operations in countries with the least stringent environmental and labor regulations. Pressure to do this is increased if competitors lower costs by the same means. This both directly results poor working conditions, low wages, job insecurity, and pollution, but also encourages governments to under-regulate in order to attract jobs and economic investment.<ref name=racebottom>Olney, W. W. (2013). "A race to the bottom? Employment protection and foreign direct investment." ''Journal of International Economics'', 91(2), 191–203.</ref> However, if business demand is sufficiently high, the labor pool in low-wage countries becomes exhausted (as has happened in the PRC),<ref name=theeffects>{{cite web|url=http://smallbusiness.chron.com/effects-economic-globalization-developing-countries-3906.html|title=The Effects of Economic Globalization on Developing Countries|last=Mohr|first=Angie|publisher=Demand Media}}</ref> resulting in higher wages due to competition, and more demand from the public for government protection against exploitation and pollution. From 2003 to 2013, wages in [[China]] and [[India]] have gone up by around 10–20% a year.<ref>{{cite news |title=Here, there and everywhere |url=https://www.economist.com/sites/default/files/20130119_offshoring_davos.pdf |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=30 August 2019}}</ref>

==== Health risks ====

In developing countries with loose labor regulations, there are adverse health consequences from working long hours and individuals that burden themselves from working within vasts global supply chains.<ref>Pang, Tikki, and G. Emmanuel Guindon. "Globalization and Risks to Health." EMBO Reports.</ref> Women in agriculture, for example, are often asked to work long hours handling chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers without any protection.<ref name=":2" />

Although both men and women experience shortcomings with health, the final reports stated that women, with the [[double burden]] of domestic and paid work experience an increased the risk of psychological distress and suboptimal health. Strazdins concluded that negative work-family spillover especially is associated with health problems among both women and men, and negative family-work spillover is related to a poorer health status among women."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/1467-9566.12300|pmid = 26174027|title = Not all hours are equal: Could time be a social determinant of health?|journal = Sociology of Health & Illness|volume = 38|issue = 1|pages = 21–42|year = 2016|last1 = Strazdins|first1 = Lyndall|last2 = Welsh|first2 = Jennifer|last3 = Korda|first3 = Rosemary|last4 = Broom|first4 = Dorothy|last5 = Paolucci|first5 = Francesco|hdl = 1885/109350|hdl-access = free}}</ref>

It is common for the work lifestyle to bring forth adverse health conditions or even death due to weak safety measure policies. After the tragic collapse of the Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh where over 800 deaths occurred the country has since then made efforts in boosting up their safety policies to better accommodate workers.<ref>Herlinger, Chris. "Bangladesh Counts The Human Cost of the Garment Industry. (Cover Story)." National Catholic Reporter 52.14 (2016): 1–16. Academic Search Premier. Web</ref>

==== Mistreatment ====

In developing countries with loose labor regulations and a large supply of low-skill, low-cost workers, there are risks for mistreatment of some workers, especially women and children.<ref name=":1">Prieto-Carrón, Marina. "Is there Anyone Listening?: Women Workers in Factories in Central America, and Corporate Codes of Conduct." Development 47.3 (2004): 101–05. ProQuest. Web.</ref> Poor working conditions and [[Workplace harassment#Gender|sexual harassment]] are just some of the mistreatment faced by women in the textile supply chain. Marina Prieto-Carrón shows in her research in [[Central America]] that women in [[sweatshop]]s are not even supplied with toilet paper in the bathroom everyday. The reason it costs corporations more is because people can not work to their full potential in poor conditions, affecting the global marketplace.<ref>Berik, G., and Y. Van Der Meulen Rodgers. "What's Macroeconomic Policy Got to Do with Gender Inequality? Evidence from Asia." Global Social Policy 12.2 (2012): 183–89. Web</ref> Furthermore, when [[corporation]]s decide to change manufacturing rates or locations in industries that employ more women, they are often left with no job nor assistance. This kind of sudden reduction or elimination in hours is seen in industries such as the [[textile industry]] and agriculture industry, both of which employ a higher number of women than men.<ref name=":2" /> One solution to mistreatment of women in the [[supply chain]] is more involvement from the corporation and trying to regulate the [[outsourcing]] of their product.<ref name=":1" />

==== Global labor and fair trade movements ====
Several movements, such as the [[fair trade]] movement and the [[anti-sweatshop movement]], claim to promote a more socially just global economy. The fair trade movement works towards improving trade, development and production for disadvantaged producers. The fair trade movement has reached 1.6 billion US dollars in annual sales.{{sfn|Raynolds|Murray|Wilkinson|2007|p=3}} The movement works to raise consumer awareness of exploitation of developing countries.  Fair trade works under the motto of "trade, not aid", to improve the quality of life for farmers and merchants by participating in direct sales, providing better prices and supporting the community.{{sfn|Raynolds|Murray|Wilkinson|2007|p=15}} Meanwhile, the anti-sweatshop movement is to protest the unfair treatment caused by some companies.

Various [[transnational organization]]s advocate for improved labor standards in developing countries. This including [[labor union]]s, who are put at a negotiating disadvantage when an employer can relocate or outsource operations to a different country.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Beladi|first1=Hamid|last2=Chao|first2=Chi-Chur|last3=Hollas|first3=Daniel|date=1 June 2013|title=Does globalization weaken labor unions in developing countries?|journal=The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development|volume=22|issue=4|pages=562–71|doi=10.1080/09638199.2011.578752|s2cid=153712681|issn=0963-8199}}</ref>

=== Capital flight ===
{{Main|Capital flight|Liquidity crisis}}

{{See also|Sudden stop (economics)|Tax exporting|Capital strike|Illicit financial flows}}

[[File:Argentina trade chart.svg|thumb|right|The [[Argentine economic crisis]] of 2001 caused in a currency devaluation and capital flight which resulted in a sharp drop in imports.]]

Capital flight occurs when assets or money rapidly flow out of a country because of that country's recent increase in unfavorable financial conditions such as [[tax]]es, [[tariff]]s, [[labor costs]], [[government debt]] or [[capital controls]]. This is usually accompanied by a sharp drop in the [[exchange rate]] of the affected country or a forced [[devaluation]] for countries living under [[fixed exchange rate]]s. Currency declines improve the [[terms of trade]], but reduce the monetary value of financial and other assets in the country. This leads to decreases in the [[purchasing power]] of the country's assets.

A 2008 paper published by [[Global Financial Integrity]] estimated capital flight to be leaving developing countries at the rate of "$850 billion to $1 trillion a year."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gfintegrity.org/storage/gfip/executive%20-%20final%20version%201-5-09.pdf |title=Illicit Financial Flows From Developing Countries: 2002–2006, Dev Kar and Devon Cartwright-Smith, 2008 |access-date=22 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019175719/http://www.gfintegrity.org/storage/gfip/executive%20-%20final%20version%201-5-09.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> But capital flight also affects developed countries. A 2009 article in ''[[The Times]]'' reported that hundreds of wealthy financiers and entrepreneurs had recently fled the [[United Kingdom]] in response to recent tax increases, relocating to low tax destinations such as [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]], the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[British Virgin Islands]].<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6954613.ece Hundreds of bosses flee UK over 50% tax], The Times, 13 December 2009</ref> In May 2012 the scale of [[Greece|Greek]] capital flight in the wake of the first [[Greek legislative election, May 2012|"undecided" legislative election]] was estimated at €4 billion a week.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/9270884/Debt-crisis-Greek-euro-exit-looms-closer-as-banks-crumble.html Greek Euro exit looms closer as banks crumble]</ref>

Capital flight can cause [[liquidity crisis|liquidity crises]] in directly affected countries and can cause related difficulties in other countries involved in [[international commerce]] such as shipping and finance. Asset holders may be forced into distress sales. Borrowers typically face higher loan costs and [[Collateral (finance)|collateral]] requirements, compared to periods of ample liquidity, and [[unsecured debt]] is nearly impossible to obtain. Typically, during a liquidity crisis, the [[interbank lending market]] stalls.

=== Inequality ===
{{Main|Economic inequality|International inequality}}

While within-country income inequality has increased throughout the globalization period, globally inequality has lessened as developing countries have experienced much more rapid growth.<ref>{{Cite report | doi = 10.1596/1813-9450-6259| title = Global Income Inequality by the Numbers: In History and Now – An Overview |work=Policy Research Working Papers |year=2012| last1 = Milanovic | first1 = B. | citeseerx = 10.1.1.691.2382}}</ref> Economic inequality varies between societies, historical periods, economic structures or economic systems, ongoing or past wars, between [[gender pay gap|genders]], and between differences in individuals' abilities to create [[wealth]].<ref>Kopczuk, Saez, and Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for men to move up the earnings distribution, while women fare better. {{cite journal | doi = 10.1162/qjec.2010.125.1.91 | title= Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937 * | journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics | date=2010 | volume=125 | issue=1 | pages=91–128 | first=Wojciech | last=Kopczuk| s2cid= 13073651 }}</ref> Among the [[income inequality metrics|various]] numerical [[index (economics)|indices]] for measuring economic inequality, the [[Gini coefficient]] is most often-cited.

[[File:Berg Ostry 2011 Chart 4.gif|thumb|left|Of the factors influencing the duration of [[economic growth]] in both developed and developing countries, [[Economic inequality|income equality]] has a more beneficial effect than trade openness, sound political institutions, and foreign investment.<ref name=BergOstryEE>{{Cite journal |last1= Berg |first1= Andrew G. |last2= Ostry |first2= Jonathan D. |year= 2011 |title= Equality and Efficiency |journal= Finance and Development |volume= 48 |issue= 3 |url= http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2011/09/berg.htm |access-date= 10 September 2012}}</ref>]]

Economic inequality includes [[Equity (economics)|equity]], [[equality of outcome]] and subsequent [[equality of opportunity]]. Although earlier studies considered economic inequality as necessary and beneficial,<ref>[http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/itv/articles/?id=1920 U.S. Income Inequality: It’s Not So Bad] By Thomas A. Garrett| Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis| Spring 2010</ref> some economists see it as an important social problem.<ref name="Spirit Level">{{cite book |title=The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better |last=Wilkinson |first=Richard |author2=Pickett, Kate |year=2009 |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-1-84614-039-6 |page=352|title-link=The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better }}</ref> Early studies suggesting that greater equality inhibits [[economic growth]] did not account for lags between inequality changes and growth changes.<ref name=BanerjeeDuflo>{{Cite journal |last1= Banerjee |first1= Abhijit V. |first2= Esther |last2= Duflo |year=2003 |title= Inequality And Growth: What Can The Data Say? |journal= Journal of Economic Growth |volume= 8 |issue= 3 |pages= 267–99 |doi= 10.1023/A:1026205114860 |url= http://economics.mit.edu/files/753 |access-date= 25 September 2012}}</ref> Later studies claimed that one of the most robust determinants of sustained economic growth is the level of income inequality.<ref name=BergOstryEE/>

[[International inequality]] is inequality between countries. Income differences between rich and poor countries are very large, although they are changing rapidly. Per capita incomes in [[China]] and India doubled in the prior twenty years, a feat that required 150 years in the US.{{sfn|UNDP|2013|loc=Introduction}} According to the [[United Nations]] Human Development Report for 2013, for countries at varying levels of the [[UN Human Development Index]] the [[GNP]] per capita grew between 2004 and 2013 from 24,806 to 33,391 or 35% (very high human development), 4,269 to 5,428 or 27% (medium) and 1,184 to 1,633 or 38% (low) PPP$, respectively (PPP$ = [[purchasing power parity]] measured in [[United States dollar]]s).{{sfn|UNDP|2013|p=25}}

Certain demographic changes in the developing world after active [[economic liberalization]] and international integration resulted in rising welfare and hence, reduced inequality. According to [[Martin Wolf]], in the developing world as a whole, life expectancy rose by four months each year after 1970 and infant mortality rate declined from 107 per thousand in 1970 to 58 in 2000 due to improvements in [[standards of living]] and health conditions. Also, adult literacy in developing countries rose from 53% in 1970 to 74% in 1998 and much lower illiteracy rate among the young guarantees that rates will continue to fall as time passes. Furthermore, the reduction in [[fertility rate]]s in the developing world as a whole from 4.1 births per woman in 1980 to 2.8 in 2000 indicates improved education level of women on fertility, and control of fewer children with more parental attention and investment.<ref name="Incensed about Inequality in 'Why Globalization Works'">{{cite web|url= http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300107777|title= Why Globalization Works|publisher= [[Yale University Press]]|first= Martin|last= Wolf|year= 2004|access-date= 6 April 2013|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130510120230/http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300107777|archive-date= 10 May 2013|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Consequentially, more prosperous and educated parents with fewer children have chosen to withdraw their children from the labor force to give them opportunities to be educated at school improving the issue of [[child labor]]. Thus, despite seemingly unequal [[distribution of income]] within these developing countries, their economic growth and development have brought about improved standards of living and welfare for the population as a whole.

Economic development spurred by international investment or trade can increase local [[income inequality]] as workers with more education and skills can find higher-paying work. This can be mitigated with government funding of education.<ref name=theeffects/> Another way globalization increases income inequality is by increasing the size of the market available for any particular good or service. This allows the owners of companies that service global markets to reap disproportionately larger profits. This may happen at the expense of local companies that would have otherwise been able to dominate the domestic market, which would have spread profits around to a larger number of owners. On the other hand, globalized stock markets allow more people to invest internationally, and get a share of profits from companies they otherwise could not.

=== Resource insecurity ===
[[File:Water, energy and land insecurity in global supply chains.webm|thumb|A video explaining findings of the study "Water, energy and land insecurity in global supply chains"]]
A systematic, and possibly first large-scale, cross-sectoral analysis of [[water security|water]], [[energy security|energy]] and [[land degradation|land]] in [[security]] in 189 countries that links national and sector consumption to sources showed that countries and sectors are highly exposed to over-exploited, insecure, and degraded such resources. The 2020 study finds that economic globalization has decreased security of [[Global supply chain management|global supply chains]] with most countries exhibiting greater exposure to resource [[Risk management|risks]] via [[international trade]] – mainly from remote [[production (economics)|production]] sources – and that diversifying trading partners is unlikely to help nations and sectors to reduce these or to improve their resource [[self-sufficiency]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Global trade linked to resource insecurity |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/sustainability/global-trade-linked-to-resource-insecurity/ |access-date=3 December 2020 |work=Cosmos Magazine |date=26 October 2020 |language=en-AU}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Dunphy |first1=Siobhán |title=Is globalisation compatible with sustainable and resilient supply chains? |url=https://www.europeanscientist.com/en/agriculture/is-globalisation-compatible-with-sustainable-and-resilient-supply-chains/ |access-date=3 December 2020 |work=European Scientist |date=20 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Globalized economy making water, energy and land insecurity worse: study |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-10-globalized-economy-energy-insecurity-worse.html |website=phys.org |access-date=3 December 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taherzadeh |first1=Oliver |last2=Bithell |first2=Mike |last3=Richards |first3=Keith |title=Water, energy and land insecurity in global supply chains |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=28 October 2020 |page=102158 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102158 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095937802030741X |access-date=3 December 2020 |language=en |issn=0959-3780}}</ref>

=== Competitive advantages ===
Businesses in developed countries tend to be more highly [[automated]], have more sophisticated technology and techniques, and have better national infrastructure. For these reasons and sometimes due to [[economies of scale]], they can sometimes out-compete similar businesses in developing countries. This is a substantial issue in international agriculture, where Western farms tend to be large and highly productive due to [[agricultural machinery]], fertilizer, and pesticides; but developing-country farms tend to be smaller and rely heavily on manual labor. Conversely, cheaper manual labor in developing countries allowed workers there to out-compete workers in higher-wage countries for jobs in labor-intensive industries. As the theory of [[competitive advantage]] predicts, instead of each country producing all the goods and services it needs domestically, a country's economy tends to specialize in certain areas where it is more productive (though in the long term the differences may be equalized, resulting in a more balanced economy).

=== Tax havens ===
{{Main|Tax haven}}
[[File:German GDP in tax havens.png|thumb|The ratio of German assets in tax havens in relation to the total German GDP.<ref>Shafik Hebous (2011) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1934164 "Money at the Docks of Tax Havens: A Guide"], CESifo Working Paper Series No. 3587, p. 9</ref> The "Big 7" shown are Hong Kong, Ireland, Lebanon, Liberia, Panama, Singapore, and Switzerland.]]
A [[tax haven]] is a state, country or territory where certain [[tax]]es are levied at a low rate or not at all, which are used by businesses for [[tax avoidance and tax evasion]].<ref name="ssrn">Dharmapala, Dhammika und Hines Jr., James R. (2006) [https://ssrn.com/abstract=952721 Which Countries Become Tax Havens?]</ref> Individuals and/or corporate entities can find it attractive to move themselves to areas with reduced taxation. This creates a situation of [[tax competition]] among governments. Taxes vary substantially across [[jurisdiction]]s.<ref>Moran Harari, Markus Meinzer and Richard Murphy (October 2012) [http://www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/FSI2012_BanksBig4.pdf "Financial Secrecy, Banks and the Big 4 Firms of Accountants"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407224017/http://www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/FSI2012_BanksBig4.pdf |date=7 April 2016 }} ''Tax Justice Network''</ref> [[Sovereignty|Sovereign]] states have theoretically unlimited powers to enact tax laws affecting their territories, unless limited by previous international treaties. The central feature of a tax haven is that its laws and other measures can be used to evade or avoid the tax laws or regulations of other jurisdictions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/Identifying_Tax_Havens_Jul_07.pdf |title=The Truth About Tax Havens – retrieved 28 December 2007 |access-date=22 March 2011}}</ref> In its December 2008 report on the use of tax havens by American corporations,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-157|title=''International Taxation: Large U.S. Corporations and Federal Contractors with Subsidiaries in Jurisdictions Listed as Tax Havens or Financial Privacy Jurisdictions'' GAO:GAO-09-157 |issue=GAO-09-157 |publisher=[[Government Accountability Office]]|date=18 December 2008|access-date=21 January 2009}}</ref> the U.S. [[Government Accountability Office]] regarded the following characteristics as indicative of a tax haven: nil or nominal taxes; lack of effective exchange of tax information with foreign tax authorities; lack of transparency in the operation of legislative, legal or administrative provisions; no requirement for a substantive local presence; and self-promotion as an [[offshore financial centre|offshore financial center]].

A 2012 report from the [[Tax Justice Network]] estimated that between US$21 trillion and $32 trillion is sheltered from taxes in tax havens worldwide.<ref name=tjn12>Tax Justice Network (22 July 2012) [http://www.taxjustice.net/cms/upload/pdf/The_Price_of_Offshore_Revisited_Presser_120722.pdf "Revealed: Global super-rich has at least $21 trillion hidden in secret tax havens"]</ref> If such hidden offshore assets are considered, many countries with governments nominally in debt would be net creditor nations.<ref name=cbc12>Canadian Broadcasting Co. (22 July 2012) [http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2012/07/22/tax-havens.html "Wealthy hiding $21 trillion in tax havens, report says"]</ref> However, the tax policy director of the [[Chartered Institute of Taxation]] expressed skepticism over the accuracy of the figures.<ref>John Whiting, tax policy director at the UK's [[Chartered Institute of Taxation]] commented "There clearly are some significant amounts hidden away, but if it really is that size what is being done with it all?" and "If the suggestion is that such amounts are actively hidden and never accessed, that seems odd – not least in terms of what the tax authorities are doing. In fact, the US, UK and German authorities are doing a lot", and noting that if the figures were accurate "you would expect the havens to be more conspicuously wealthy than they are".  However, he also admitted that "I cannot disprove the figures at all, but they do seem staggering" {{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18944097|title=Tax havens: Super-rich 'hiding' at least $21tn|date=22 July 2012|access-date=3 October 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref> [[Daniel J. Mitchell]] of the US-based [[Cato Institute]] says that the report also assumes, when considering notional lost tax revenue, that 100% of the money deposited offshore is evading payment of tax.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thesovereigninvestor.com/2012/07/30/fighting-anti-tax-haven-demagoguery-on-cnn/|title=Fighting Anti-Tax Haven Demagoguery on CNN|date=30 July 2012|access-date=3 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227214302/http://thesovereigninvestor.com/2012/07/30/fighting-anti-tax-haven-demagoguery-on-cnn/|archive-date=27 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[tax shelter]] benefits result in a [[tax incidence]] disadvantaging the poor.<ref>[http://uspirgedfund.org/sites/pirg/files/reports/Picking_Up_the_Tab_USP.pdf "Picking Up the Tab"] ''U.S. Public Interest Research Group'', April 2012</ref> Many tax havens are thought to have connections to "fraud, money laundering and terrorism."<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/06/opinion/sunday/these-islands-arent-just-a-shelter-from-taxes.html "These Islands Aren’t Just a Shelter From Taxes"] ''New York Times'', 5 May 2012</ref> [[Accountant]]s' opinions on the propriety of tax havens have been evolving,<ref>[http://www.accountancyage.com/debate/4/tax-avoidance-fair-or-foul "Tax avoidance: fair or foul?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527162225/http://www.accountancyage.com/debate/4/tax-avoidance-fair-or-foul |date=27 May 2013 }} ''Accountancy Age Debates'', 14 January 2013</ref> as have the opinions of their corporate users,<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/jan/29/google-tax-chairman "Google will not oppose clampdown on tax avoidance, chairman says"] ''Guardian'', 28 January 2013</ref> governments,<ref>[http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/voices/2012/06/tax-avoidance-isnt-left-or-right-issue-its-cancer-eating-our-democracy "Tax avoidance isn't a left or right issue, it's a cancer eating our democracy"] ''New Statesman'', 21 June 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.ipsnews.net/2012/10/helsinki-boycotts-tax-havens/ "Helsinki Boycotts Tax Havens"], ''Inter Press Service'', 6 October 2012</ref> and politicians,<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/david-cameron/9779983/David-Cameron-Tax-avoiding-foreign-firms-like-Starbucks-and-Amazon-lack-moral-scruples.html "David Cameron: Tax avoiding foreign firms like Starbucks and Amazon lack 'moral scruples'"] ''The Telegraph'', 4 January 2013</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/13/us-g20-tax-germany-merkel-idUSBRE91C1G020130213 "Germany's Merkel calls for G8 fight against tax havens"] ''Reuters'', 13 February 2013</ref> although their use by [[Fortune 500]] companies<ref>[http://ctj.org/ctjreports/2012/10/which_fortune_500_companies_are_sheltering_income_in_overseas_tax_havens.php "Which Fortune 500 Companies Are Sheltering Income in Overseas Tax Havens?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424214154/http://ctj.org/ctjreports/2012/10/which_fortune_500_companies_are_sheltering_income_in_overseas_tax_havens.php |date=24 April 2013 }} ''Citizens for Tax Justice'', 17 October 2012</ref> and others remains widespread. Reform proposals centering on the [[Big Four (audit firms)|Big Four accountancy firms]] have been advanced.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/dec/10/end-tax-scams-by-hitting-big-four "Britain could end these tax scams by hitting the big four"] ''The Guardian'', 10 December 2012</ref> Some governments appear to be using computer [[spyware]] to scrutinize corporations' finances.<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/08/did-the-bounds-of-cyber-war-just-expand-to-banks-and-neutral-states/261230/ "Did the Bounds of Cyber War Just Expand to Banks and Neutral States?"] ''The Atlantic'', 17 August 2012</ref>

[[File:US corporate profits and business investment.png|thumb|Red: U.S. corporate profits after tax. Blue: U.S. nonresidential business investment, both as fractions of GDP, 1989–2012. [[Wealth concentration]] of corporate profits in global [[tax havens]] due to [[tax avoidance]] spurred by imposition of austerity measures can stall investment, inhibiting further growth.<ref>[http://www.lem.sssup.it/WPLem/documents/fazzari2.pdf "Aggregate Demand, Instability and Growth"] ''Review of Keynesian Economics'', January 2013 (see also [http://slackwire.blogspot.com/2013/02/aggregate-demand-in-long-run.html this review] of the paper)</ref>]]

=== Cultural effects ===

Economic globalization may affect culture. Populations may mimic the international flow of capital and labor markets in the form of immigration and the merger of cultures. Foreign resources and economic measures may affect different native cultures and may cause assimilation of a native people.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Held |editor1-first=David |title=A Globalizing World?: Culture, Economics, Politics |edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge, in association with the Open University|location=London; New York|year=2004|isbn=978-0-203-39219-5|page=84}}</ref> As these populations are exposed to the English language, computers, western music, and North American culture, changes are being noted in shrinking family size, immigration to larger cities, more casual dating practices, and gender roles are transformed.<!-- how is this about economics? -->

Yu Xintian noted two contrary trends in culture due to economic globalization.<ref>{{cite book|first=Xintian|last=Yu|title=Cultural Impact on International Relations. Chinese Philosophical Studies, XX|year=2002|publisher=The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy|isbn=978-1-56518-176-2|page=203}}</ref> Yu argued that culture and industry not only flow from the developed world to the rest, but trigger an effort to protect local cultures. He notes that economic globalization began after World War II, whereas [[internationalization]] began over a century ago.<ref>{{cite book|last=Xintian|first=Yu|title=Cultural Impact on International Relations. Chinese Philosophical Studies, XX|year=2002|publisher=The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy|isbn=978-1-56518-176-2|page=204}}</ref>

[[George Ritzer]] wrote about the [[McDonaldization]] of society and how fast food businesses spread throughout the United States and the rest of the world, attracting other places to adopt fast food culture.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ritzer|first=George|title=McDonaldization: the reader/ 3rd ed.|year=2010|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oak, CA|isbn=978-1-4129-7582-7|page=3}}</ref> Ritzer describes other businesses such as [[The Body Shop]], a British cosmetics company, that have copied [[McDonald's]] business model for expansion and influence. In 2006, 233 of 280 or over 80% of new [[McDonald's]] opened outside the US. In 2007, Japan had 2,828 [[McDonald's]] locations.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ritzer|first=George|title=McDonaldization: the reader/ 3rd ed.|year=2010|publisher=Sage Publications|location=Thousand Oak, CA|isbn=978-1-4129-7582-7|pages=5–7}}</ref>

Global media companies export information around the world. This creates a mostly one-way flow of information, and exposure to mostly western products and values. Companies like [[CNN]], [[Reuters]] and the [[BBC]] dominate the global airwaves with western points of view.  Other media news companies such as [[Qatar]]'s [[Al Jazeera]] network offer a different point of view, but reach and influence fewer people.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nakayma|first=Thomas, K|title=The Handbook of Critical Intercultural communication|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-8407-6|date=4 January 2011}}</ref>

=== Migration ===

"With an estimated 210 million people living outside their country of origin ([[International Labour Organization]] [ILO] 2010), international migration has touched the lives of almost everyone in both the sending and receiving countries of the [[Global South]] and the [[Global North]]".<ref name="Beneria, Deere, and Kabeer 2012">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1080/13545701.2012.688998 | title=Gender and International Migration: Globalization, Development, and Governance | journal=Feminist Economics | date=2012 | volume=18 | issue=2 | pages=1–33 | first=Lourdes | last=Benería| s2cid=144565818 }}</ref> Because of advances made in technology, human beings as well as goods are able to move through different countries and regions with relative ease.

== Տե՛ս նաև ==
{{Portal|Business}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Economic union]]
*[[Foreign direct investment]]
*[[Free trade]]
*[[Globalization]]
*[[Internationalization]]
*''[[Jihad vs. McWorld]]''
*[[List of economic communities]]
*[[List of free trade agreements]]
*[[Military globalization]]
*[[Mundialization]]
*[[Neoliberalism]]
*[[Trade globalization]]
*[[World economy]]
{{div col end}}

== Ծանոթագրություններ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Գրականություն==
*{{cite web  |last=Gao |first=Shangquan|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/cdp/cdp_background_papers/bp2000_1.pdf |title=Economic Globalization: Trends, Risks and Risk Prevention: 2000 |year=2000 }}
*{{cite book|first1=Michael D. | last1=Bordo|first2=Alan M. | last2=Taylor|first3=Jeffrey G. | last3=Williamson|title=Globalization in Historical Perspective|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=O2m5ARhXICEC}}|date=1 November 2007|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-06599-1}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Held |editor1-first=David |title=A Globalizing World?: Culture, Economics, Politics |edition=2nd|publisher=Routledge, in association with the Open University|location=London; New York|year=2004}}
*{{Cite book | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= Gills | first2= Barry | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 1: Global Markets and Capitalism | url= https://www.academia.edu/4199690 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}}
*{{Cite book | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= Patomäki | first2= Heikki | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 2: Global Finance and the New Global Economy | url= https://www.academia.edu/4211923 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}}
*{{Cite book | year= 2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= Palen | first2= Ronen | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 3: Global Economic Regimes and Institutions | url= https://www.academia.edu/4251331 | publisher= Sage Publications | location= London}}
*{{cite book | year=2007 | last1= James | first1= Paul | author-link= Paul James (academic) | last2= O’Brien | first2= Robert | title= Globalization and Economy, Vol. 4: Globalizing Labour | url= https://www.academia.edu/4303461 | publisher= Sage Publications |location=London }}
*{{cite book|first1=Laura T. |last1=Raynolds|first2=Douglas |last2=Murray|first3=John |last3=Wilkinson|title=Fair Trade: The Challenges of Transforming Globalization|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=TqFi7HjBhJ0C}}|date=11 June 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-00263-4 }}
*{{cite web| last=UNDP |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/reports/14/hdr2013_en_complete.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2013 - The Rise of the South: Human Progress in a Diverse World |date=2013 |access-date=14 July 2014 }}
*{{cite book|year=2012|first1=Cheol S. |last1=Eun|first2=Bruce G. |last2=Resnick|title=International Financial Management|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (Asia) and China Machine Press|isbn=978-0-07-803465-7 }}

==Արտաքին հղումներ==
*{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Globalization|state=autocollapse}}
{{Economics |collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Economic globalization| ]]
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