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|source =—Petrarch<ref>{{cite book |title= Petrarch's Coronation Oration |last= Wilkins |first= Ernest H. |authorlink= |year= 1953 |publisher= Modern Language Association |location= |isbn= |page= 1245, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953)}}</ref>}}
|source =—Petrarch<ref>{{cite book |title= Petrarch's Coronation Oration |last= Wilkins |first= Ernest H. |authorlink= |year= 1953 |publisher= Modern Language Association |location= |isbn= |page= 1245, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953)}}</ref>}}


The first sections of ''Africa'' were written in the valley of [[Vaucluse]] after Petrarch's first visit to Rome in [[1337]].<ref name="berginix"> Bergin and Wilson, p. ix. ''It seems very likely that the inspirational vision of the Eternal City must have been the immediate spur to the design of the "Africa" and probably the "De viris illustribus" as well.''</ref> The design of his epic poem and also the ''De Viris Illustribus'' were inspired after he visited Rome on his grand tour.<ref name="jackson480"> Jackson, p. 480 </ref> Petrarch was a young man when he conceived ''Africa'' and notes this in his [[Letter to Posterity]].<ref name="berginix"/> The fact that he abandoned it early on is not entirely correct since it was far along when he received two invitations (from Rome and from Paris) in September 1340 each asking him to accept the crown as [[poet laureate]].<ref name="berginxi"> Bergin and Wilson, p. xi.</ref>
The first sections of ''Africa'' were written in the valley of [[Vaucluse]] after Petrarch's first visit to Rome in [[1337]].<ref name="berginix"> Bergin and Wilson, p. ix. ''It seems very likely that the inspirational vision of the Eternal City must have been the immediate spur to the design of the "Africa" and probably the "De viris illustribus" as well.''</ref> The design of his epic poem and also the ''De Viris Illustribus'' were inspired after he visited Rome on his grand tour.<ref name="jackson480"> Jackson, p. 480 </ref> Petrarch was a young man when he conceived ''Africa'' and notes this in his [[Letter to Posterity]].<ref name=""/> The fact that he abandoned it early on is not entirely correct since it was far along when he received two invitations (from Rome and from Paris) in September 1340 each asking him to accept the crown as [[poet laureate]].<ref name="berginxi"> Bergin and Wilson, p. xi.</ref>


''While I was wandering in those mountains upon a Friday in Holy Week, the strong desire seized me to write an epic in an heroic strain, taking as my theme Scipio Africanus the Great, who had, strange to say, been dear to me from my childhood. But although I began the execution of this project with enthusiasm, I straightway abandoned it, owing to a variety of distractions.''<ref name="berginix"/>
''While I was wandering in those mountains upon a Friday in Holy Week, the strong desire seized me to write an epic in an heroic strain, taking as my theme Scipio Africanus the Great, who had, strange to say, been dear to me from my childhood. But although I began the execution of this project with enthusiasm, I straightway abandoned it, owing to a variety of distractions.''<ref name=""/>
Petrarch writes that [[Scipio Africanus|Cornelius Scipio]] was equally glorious on the battle field as [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], but also had the reputation of a chaste and temperate man, even a lover of solitude. Petrarch defines [[Hannibal]]'s conqueror ''quel fiore antico di vertuti e d'arme.'' He felt kinship and admiration for this epic hero. In fact, in addition to making Scipio the hero of his poem, he gave him also special treatment in his [[Petrarch's De Viris Illustribus|''De Viris Illustribus'']].<ref name="berginxii"> Bergin and Wilson, p. xii.</ref><ref> Bernardo, p. 11 </ref>
Petrarch writes that [[Scipio Africanus|Cornelius Scipio]] was equally glorious on the battle field as [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], but also had the reputation of a chaste and temperate man, even a lover of solitude. Petrarch defines [[Hannibal]]'s conqueror ''quel fiore antico di vertuti e d'arme.'' He felt kinship and admiration for this epic hero. In fact, in addition to making Scipio the hero of his poem, he gave him also special treatment in his [[Petrarch's De Viris Illustribus|''De Viris Illustribus'']].<ref name="berginxii"> Bergin and Wilson, p. xii.</ref><ref> Bernardo, p. 11 </ref>
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*Morley, Henry, ''English writers: an attempt towards a history of English literature,'' Volume 4, Cassell & Company, 1889
*Morley, Henry, ''English writers: an attempt towards a history of English literature,'' Volume 4, Cassell & Company, 1889
*Palesa, Agosa, [http://books.google.com/books?id=EqoZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=100&as_brr=3&output=text#c_top Africa: visited Italian verse by Dr. Augustine Palesa] F. Sacchetto, 1874, translated by Google translate toolbar.
*Palesa, Agosa, [http://books.google.com/books?id=EqoZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&num=100&as_brr=3&output=text#c_top Africa: visited Italian verse by Dr. Augustine Palesa] F. Sacchetto, 1874, translated by Google translate toolbar.
*Robinson, James Harvey, ''Petrarch, the first modern scholar and man of letters: a selection from his correspondence with Boccaccio and other friends, designed to illustrate the beginnings of the Renaissance'', G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1907
*Scanlon, Larry, ''Narrative, Authority and Power: The Medieval Exemplum and the Chaucerian Tradition, Volume 20 of Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, CUP, 2007, ISBN 0521044251
*Scanlon, Larry, ''Narrative, Authority and Power: The Medieval Exemplum and the Chaucerian Tradition, Volume 20 of Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, CUP, 2007, ISBN 0521044251
*Tillyard, Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall, ''The English epic and its background'', Chatto and Windus, 1954
*Tillyard, Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall, ''The English epic and its background'', Chatto and Windus, 1954

Revision as of 13:24, 24 February 2010

File:Scipio Africanus the Elder.png
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the hero of Petrarch's Africa
Francesco Petrarch, the AFRICA, Italian verse by Dr. Augustine Palesa, Padua, publisher F. Sacchetto 1874

Africa is an epic poem in Latin hexameters by the 14th century Italian poet Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca). It tells the story of the Second Punic War, in which the Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy, but Roman forces were eventually victorious after an invasion of north Africa led by Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, the epic poem's hero.[1]

Inspiration

"True also are these lines of Ovid (Epistles of Pontus iv.2, 35-36)
The thought of the listener excites the toiling writer; excellence grows when it is praised; and the thought of glory is a powerful spur."

—Petrarch[2]

The first sections of Africa were written in the valley of Vaucluse after Petrarch's first visit to Rome in 1337.[3] The design of his epic poem and also the De Viris Illustribus were inspired after he visited Rome on his grand tour.[4] Petrarch was a young man when he conceived Africa and notes this in his Letter to Posterity.[5] The fact that he abandoned it early on is not entirely correct since it was far along when he received two invitations (from Rome and from Paris) in September 1340 each asking him to accept the crown as poet laureate.[6]

While I was wandering in those mountains upon a Friday in Holy Week, the strong desire seized me to write an epic in an heroic strain, taking as my theme Scipio Africanus the Great, who had, strange to say, been dear to me from my childhood. But although I began the execution of this project with enthusiasm, I straightway abandoned it, owing to a variety of distractions.[5]

Petrarch writes that Cornelius Scipio was equally glorious on the battle field as Caesar, but also had the reputation of a chaste and temperate man, even a lover of solitude. Petrarch defines Hannibal's conqueror quel fiore antico di vertuti e d'arme. He felt kinship and admiration for this epic hero. In fact, in addition to making Scipio the hero of his poem, he gave him also special treatment in his De Viris Illustribus.[7][8]

History

A preliminary form of the poem was completed in time for the laurel coronation April 8th, 1341 (Easter Sunday).[6] It was dedicated to Robert of Naples, king of Sicily. The king gave Petrarch a three-day oral examination a few days prior to see if he was qualified to receive the laurel crown.

"I showed him my Africa which so delighted him that he asked that it might be dedicated to him."

—Petrarch[9]

Petrarch spoke of this

To you also there have been conveyed the requests, in this regard, of the most illustrious King of Sicily, by whose high and profound judgment I, though unworthy, have been approved to whom, moreover, by ancient custom the power of approval has been entrusted by the Roman people.[10]

It could easily be inferred from this wording that the epic poem was far enough along to receive this flattering colloquy.[6] By 1343 the work was provvisoriamente finished as we have it today worldwide.[7]

This was a banquet of compositions that he produced at a young age while in the middle of writing his Africa. The events of the journeys in Africa ultimately leading to the destruction of Carthage (Numidia) in Petrarch's poem written in hexameters is based on the Second Punic War. The Third Punic War lead to Carthage being razed. No people remained. The Roman name for Carthaginian was Punici or Poenici.[11]

Coronation

Petrarch's "coronation oration" is the formal public speech of acceptance by him of the title poet laureate on April 8, 1341, for his work on Africa about Cornelius Scipio.[12][13][14] The speech demonstrates the gradual transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance.[12] It is considered the first manifesto of the Renaissance.[12] Petrarch looked at his laureateship as political.[15] In his grand speech he said of the description of his laurel that it was ...equally appropriate of Caesars and poets.[15]

"But a sweet longing urges me upward over the lonely slopes of Parnassus." - Virgil, Georgics iim.291-292

part of Petrarch's coronation oration[16]

"...why, I ask you, if not for the very reason that Virgil gives,
Love of his fatherland has conquered, and the immense desire for praise." - Virgil, Aeneid vi.823

part of Petrarch's coronation oration[17]

His work must have needed some final touches however, because in the Metrical Letter at the coronation Petrarch wrote

The little book itself, now growing bold,
Burns with desire to run and cast itself
Before those sacred feet,
and day and night,
pleads for release[6]


Petrarch speaks of other famous poets in his "coronation oration"

Of the third difficulty I will say only this, that, as we all read and know, there was a time, there was an age, that was happier for poets, an age when they were held in the highest honor, first in Greece and then in Italy, and especially when Caesar Augustus held imperial sway, under whom there flourished excellent poets, Virgil, Varius, Ovid, Horace, and many others.[18]

Editions

Petrarch continued to revise it however for the rest of his life. The text was not made public until 1397, three decades after his death. To Petrarch, his Africa was his croce e delizia for the rest of his life. Petrarch set great store by Africa and his other classicizing works, but the epic was not particularly well-received because of the literary transposition from Livy; only the two parts of the death of Magone and the love story of Sofonisba are generally considered as touching examples of elegiac lyrics. The editio princeps of the Africa was first published and printed, as part of Petrarch's collected works (Opera omnia), at Venice in 1501.[19]

Petrarch's epic poem was printed again as a Venetian edition in 1503. There was also in 1541 to 1558 Basel editions printed. In 1872 it received special treatment in Paris by L. Pingaud. In 1874 came an edition by Francesco Corradini from Padua.[20]

Reviews

In 1926 Nicola Festa produced a full-scale and meticulous edition where it received scrupulous editorial attention. It was labeled then as the

poem of the Mediterranean victory of Rome.[20]

English critic Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall Tillyard in his 1954 book The English epic and its background described Petrarch's epic poem as

...the principal importance of "Africa" ... is that it marks a complete transfer of the center importance from the allegory to the heroic poem, from the theme of the soul's pilgrimage towards its heavenly home to that of the politics of the world. [21]

Historian Giuseppe Toffanin says in his 1954 history book that

...the Africa remains...the poem of Humanism par excellence, the great bridge flung to us across the pagan centuries by God.[22]

The Africa is the real Divine Comedy, the true Christian sequel to the Aeneid.[23]

Scholar Aldo S. Bernardo says in his 1962 book Petrarch, Scipio, and the Africa of earlier scholars' criticisms (Tillyard and Toffanin above) of Petrarch's epic poem that they had largely

...failed to grasp the significance of the fact that the "Africa" was, in effect, the first and perhaps last sincere attempt to write a purely classical epic since Virgil and Statius.[24][25]

Allegory

There seems to be many instances of hidden meanings in Petrarch's Africa.[26] One is the inference of Christ's second coming.[26] For this reason alone, it has turned away many readers, scholars, and students of Renaissance epic.[26] At first most scholars gave little importance to the concept of reading Petrarch's epic poem as a Christian allegory.[25] Another is that Scipio (hero of poem) seems to personify a whole catalog of pre-Christian virtues.[26] Another still is Scipio's achievements, which indicate the bringing up of the sentimental longing of Rome's long past glorious days of high accomplishments.[26]

Books

There are nine books to Petrarch's epic poem, written in Latin heximeters.[4][27] Below are summaries of each of the books.

Book 1

Scipio drove the Carthaginians out of Spain. He then immediately went to Africa to prepare to attack Carthage. It also speaks of Scipio the Younger and his dream. According to Cicero's version, from De republica, Scipio the Elder dreams he meets the spirits of his father and uncle who were both killed in Spain in 211 B.C. by the Charthaginians. Scipio is destined to avenge his family and to save Rome from the Carthaginians. So still exultant in the memory he goes; his brothers too rejoice that they arose to heaven avenged, and all to whom his valor gave the Empire close around the hero, hailing him.(lines 783-787).[28]

Book 2

Cornelius Scipio is inspired with his prophecy and the return of Rome's honor and fame. He learns that his unappreciative Romans will have a contemptuous treatment for him later. Further in his dream Scipio's uncle's spirit takes him up to the heavens to show him the little importance of human affairs. His uncle reminds him that his destiny in life is to service his fellow men and earn honor in the present war against Hannibal and the Carthaginians and save Italy. Rome will never be conquered by Hannibal and the Carthaginians, though weakened. Your ravaged Rome shall live until the end of time and she shall see the last of centuries, dying on the day the world ends. (lines 421-424). Petrarch will perpetuate this knowledge and be known as the "second Ennius" Scipio learns in his dream.[29]

Book 3

Scipio's close friend Gaius Laelius is sent to Syphax, king of Libya in north Africa, to break off relations with the Carthaginians and alien himself instead with the Romans. Syphax receives from Laelius expensive gifts and negotiates with him. He requests Laelius to tell the story of the rape of Lucretia and the banishment of the Tarquins - the ultimate cause for the change from the Roman Kingdom to the Roman Republic. During a feast, while Laelius is there, a minstrel sung the history of Libya and the unrest in Africa. Scarce was the feast concluded when a lad arrayed in purple rose before the throng to pluck his tuneful lyre in native style. (lines 472-474).[30]

Book 4

Syphax agrees with the terms Laelius negotiates and asks for a history of Cornelius Scipio the Elder. "But what above all else I yearn to know; the life and exploits of your present chief, you say naught of. I pray you, this disclose: his mien, his manner, and what heart abides within his breast, the majesty bestowed on one so young - such matters we would hear, for hither wandering rumor brings his name and nothing further. Chiefly we would learn of his late actions in Iberia. (lines 23-31). Laelius tells him of the history of Cornelius Scipio through the time of the Spanish conquest. Laelius talks much about the Spanish campaign, especially of Scipio's siege of Cartagena, Spain (New Carthage). Laelius gives Scipio much praise in this conveyance of the extraordinary qualities of his background.[31]

Book 5

A period of time had lapsed between the end of Book 4 and the beginning of Book 5, so there is little continuity in sequential history events. Book 5 starts then with Massinissa, an ally of Rome, entering the capital of the African kingdom of Syphax and sees it defeated. Previously Syphax had married the daughter of Hasdrubal named Sophonisba, niece of Hannibal. Hasdrubal was in charge of the troops in Spain at this time. Syphax now was a prisoner of the Romans. Sophonisba, Syphax's wife, surrenders herself to Massinissa at the doorway. Massinissa is overtaken by her beauty. He offers to be her knight in shining armor, to protect her and become her new husband. Believing Syphax dead, shortly after they were married. Scipio soon gets wind of this and discovers Syphax is still alive. He confronts Massinissa on this issue of a hasty marriage and tells of her deceit making him believe Syphax to be dead. He demands that she be released to him to be taken back to Rome. The lovers must be broken up to restore his friend's virtue and to protect the Roman cause. To vanquish Syphax is a glorious thing, but doubt not it is greater to put down the strong emotions raging in the heart and hold tight rein on the intemperate soul. You'll have in me a herald of your virtues and gladly I'll report your words and deeds (lines 548-552). Massinissa in a dilemma between love and duty finally relinquishes his queen in a somber manner. Sophonisba wishes not to become Scipio's war prize and makes Massinissa promise to help. Massinissa fulfills his promise and arranges poison to be delivered to her tent. And Scipio, whose soul is forged of iron, will not divide our love. I shall depart, a shade that all the gods of Erebus will envy and the king and all the dwellers of that silent realm, the happiest of shades, and Scipio shall do our tender love no injury. (lines 722-728).[32]

Book 6

For the love of Massinissa she commits suiside by drinking the poison rather that becoming Scipio's war prize. Her spirit joins others in Tartarus for the sake of love. When Scipio learns of Massinissa's role in this scheme to help Sophonisba kill herself he is shocked, however consoles him for his great loss. Scipio then encourges him and his close friend Laelius to be prepared for a war against Hannibal and gives a patriotic speech. He gives lavish gifts to them and promises more on victories. I know your worth in war and how the gods have favored you; I offer you these gifts as from our city, meager, I confess against you merits. Count them but a pledge of greater gifts to come (lines 202-206). Hannibal at this time has set sail from Italy to get to Carthage as soon as possible to defend it against attack by Scipio and his troops. The Carthaginians wish peace and proposes to meet with Scipio to work out terms. They try to trick Scipio into not attacking Carthage by partial surrender terms to buy time for the return of Hannibal and Mago from Italy. Scipio is not fooled by the ambiguous terms and does not relinquish his original plans of total surrender. Scipio reminds them "I would remind you that I am not come to Libyan shores as one to treat of peace, but as a conqueror sworn to avenge old injuries (lines 448-451). Hannibal bolsters on how he will conduct the coming battle, however has an idea what the outcome will be. The destiny of Carthage and my line I have long known; my brother's severed head advised me of what jealous Fortune held in store for me. And now I seem to see before my eyes my city's sorry state, her ill-starred ruins. O Chartage of my heart, what man has brought us down and made as naught our many triumphs over Latin blood? (lines 553-560).[33]

Book 7

Neither give in and the Battle of Zama begins of the attack of Carthage. In a contrast between Carthaginian wickedness and Roman virtue Scipio emerges as a great moral leader. But merciful Puissance, Heaven-born, supports the just and endows Italy, distress through many long and anguished years, with this great champion who courageously takes up the burden of so fierce a war; not only present perils he averts but will prevail o'er trials yet to come. With him her champion, Freedom has been saved for his own age and through the future years. (lines 1390-1398). As the battle is carried on Hannibal flees and hides in his house in disgrace. Scipio becomes the victor.[34]

Book 8

The end of the Second Punic War then shows that the Carthaginians are defeated quickly. Carthage soon surrenders. Scipio then boards a ship to return to Rome. He gives a grand speech to the Punic Senate and the gathered crowd. Be ye content with what is yours and live mindful of the immortals; let not envy blind you with fury, driving you to arms. Within you ancient frontiers a vast realm is left to you and all the laws remain confirmed, as is your state, in Liberty. Though it be glorious to rule the world, obedience to the just is more secure. (lines 1469-1475).[35]

Book 9

In a dream Scipio then learns that "Ennius" (Petrarch) will forever immortalize him and his great deeds. That youth in distant ages will recall with his sweet notes the Muses, long exiled, and though by tribulations sorely tried he'll lure the venerable sisters back to Helicon. He will be called Franciscus; and all the glorious exploits you have seen he will assembel in one volume - all the deeds in Spain, the arduous Libyan trials; and he will call his poem "Africa." (lines 314-322). The epic poem ends with Scipio's arrival at Rome in a grand triumph on the steps of the Capitol. Petrarch is crowned poet laureate for the story of Scipio. How great will be his faith in his own gifts! How strong the love of fame that leads him on! At last in tardy triumph he will climb the Capitol. Nor shall a heedless world nor an illiterate herd, inebriate with baser passions, turn aside his steps when he descends, flanked by the company of Senators, and from the rite returns with brow girt by the glorious laurel wreath. (lines 321-331).[36]

Commentaries

  • Cornelius Scipio, the hero of Petrarch's epic poem, also appears in other of Petrarch's works such as Rhymes, Triumphs, De otio religiosorum, and De viris illustribus.[37][38] Petrarch wrote his historical Latin epic in the spirit of the main character of De viris illustribus, Cornelius Scipio.[4] Scipio's love for justice drove him too avenge his father's and uncle's death by the Carthaginians.[4] Many of the subjects of Africa are also found in De viris illustribus which is based on Livy's extensive history of Rome.[4]
  • There were two Scipios spoken about in Petrarch's epic poem. They were Scipio the Elder (235 B.C. - 183 B.C.) and his grandson Scipio the Younger (185 B.C. - 129 B.C.). Scipio the Elder is the main character and is the victor of the Second Punic War. Scipio the Younger is the victor of the Third Punic War and razed Carthage. Both had the name Africanus. Book 1, line 3-4 ...subdued by Romans arms, bestowed a lasting name.[39]
  • According to ancient Greek and Roman sources, Carthage was founded by Dido, the first Queen of Carthage. The legend goes that Dido was given the amount of land that a bull's hide would cover. She cleverly thought up the scheme of cutting up the hide into thin strips and marked off a section of land large enough to start a city. It received its name Carthage from Byrsa, another name meaning the same thing - "hide." This is alluded to in Book 1, lines 257-258 Would you condemn, insolent Byrsa, our Capitoline?[40]
  • According to the Introduction of Bergin and Wilson's translation of Petrarch's Africa to English it appears that Petrarch started his epic poem around Easter time.[3] Petrarch probably started his De viris Illustribus at the same time, which also talks much about Cornelius Scipio the Elder and many of the same subjects.[3] The Easter implication is from Book 1 lines 17-18 Whose guiltless flesh we see scarred by five gaping wounds...[41]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. xix.
  2. ^ Wilkins, Ernest H. (1953). Petrarch's Coronation Oration. Modern Language Association. p. 1245, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953).
  3. ^ a b c Bergin and Wilson, p. ix. It seems very likely that the inspirational vision of the Eternal City must have been the immediate spur to the design of the "Africa" and probably the "De viris illustribus" as well.
  4. ^ a b c d e Jackson, p. 480
  5. ^ a b Robinson, p. 70
  6. ^ a b c d Bergin and Wilson, p. xi.
  7. ^ a b Bergin and Wilson, p. xii.
  8. ^ Bernardo, p. 11
  9. ^ Petrarch's Africa English translation. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 1977, Bergin and Wilson. p. xi. ISBN 0300020627. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  10. ^ Wilkins, Ernest H. (1953). Petrarch's Coronation Oration. Modern Language Association. p. 1241-1250, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953).
  11. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. xv.
  12. ^ a b c JSTOR Petrarch's Coronation Oration
  13. ^ Wilkins (1951)
  14. ^ Wilkins (1953)
  15. ^ a b Scanlon, p. 179
  16. ^ Wilkins, Ernest H. (1953). Petrarch's Coronation Oration. Modern Language Association. p. 1242, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953).
  17. ^ Wilkins, Ernest H. (1953). Petrarch's Coronation Oration. Modern Language Association. p. 1246, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953).
  18. ^ Wilkins, Ernest H. (1953). Petrarch's Coronation Oration. Modern Language Association. p. 1244, PMLA, Vol. 68, No. 5 (Dec., 1953).
  19. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. xiii.
  20. ^ a b Bergin and Wilson, p. xiv.
  21. ^ Tillyard, p. 160
  22. ^ Toffanin, p. 111
  23. ^ Toffanin, p. 114
  24. ^ Bernardo, p. 168 Bernardo is referring to the earlier scholars of Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall Tillyard and Giuseppe Toffanin of their 1954 books.
  25. ^ a b Warner, p. 22
  26. ^ a b c d e Warner, p. 20
  27. ^ Morley, pp. 23, 24
  28. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 1-22
  29. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 23-41
  30. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 42-67
  31. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 68-82
  32. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 83-109
  33. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 110-141
  34. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 142-181
  35. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 182-222
  36. ^ Bergin and Wilson, pp. 223-240
  37. ^ Bernardo, p. 72
  38. ^ Bernardo, p. 102
  39. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. 242
  40. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. 243
  41. ^ Bergin and Wilson, p. 1B

Primary sources

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Livy

Petrarch

Secondary sources

  • Bergin, Thomas G. and Wilson, Alice S., Petrarch's Africa English translation. New Haven. Yale University Press 1977. ISBN 0-300-02062-7
  • Bernardo, Aldo S., Petrarch, Scipio, and the "Africa": the birth of humanism's dream‎. Johns Hopkins Press, 1962. pp. 127-167
  • Corradini, Francisco, Africa Francisci Petrarchae nunc primum emendata, In Padova a Francesco Petrarca net Quinto Centenario dalla sua morte. Padova: Premiata Tipografia del Seminario, 1874.
  • Develay, Victor, L'Afrique, Gautier, 1893
  • Develay, Victor, Le Livre, volume 6, 1885, pp. 278-288. French translation of Petrarch's Coronation Oration.
  • Festa, Nicola, Saggio sull' "Africa" del Petrarca‎, Volume 113 of Biblioteca Sandron di scienze e lettere, H. Sandron, 1926
  • Giordano, Antonio and John, Francesco Petrarch and Africa‎ (Literary Criticism), Typography Gentile, 1890
  • Hortis, Attilio, Scritti inediti di Francesco Petrarca Latin text of Petrarch's Coronation Oration, Trieste, 1874.
  • Jackson, William T. H., European Writers, The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Volume 2 (Petrarch to Renaissance short fiction), Charles Scibner's Sons, 1983, ISBN 0-684-165-94-5
  • Marretti, Fabio, Le rime e L'Africa, E. Perino, 1890
  • Marretti, Fabio, L' Africa: in Ottava Rima insieme col testo latino, Farri, 1570
  • Morley, Henry, English writers: an attempt towards a history of English literature, Volume 4, Cassell & Company, 1889
  • Palesa, Agosa, Africa: visited Italian verse by Dr. Augustine Palesa F. Sacchetto, 1874, translated by Google translate toolbar.
  • Robinson, James Harvey, Petrarch, the first modern scholar and man of letters: a selection from his correspondence with Boccaccio and other friends, designed to illustrate the beginnings of the Renaissance, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1907
  • Scanlon, Larry, Narrative, Authority and Power: The Medieval Exemplum and the Chaucerian Tradition, Volume 20 of Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature, CUP, 2007, ISBN 0521044251
  • Tillyard, Eustace Mandeville Wetenhall, The English epic and its background, Chatto and Windus, 1954
  • Toffanin, Giuseppe, History of humanism, Las Americas Publishing, 1954
  • Warner, James Christopher, The Augustinian epic, Petrarch to Milton, University of Michigan Press, 2005, ISBN 0472115189
  • Wilkins, Ernest H., The making of the "Canzoniere" and other Petrarchan studies, Chapter II "The Coronation of Petrarch", Edizioni di Storia e letteratura, 1951
  • Wilkins, Ernest H., Petrarch's coronation oration, Modern Language Association of America., 1953
  • Wilkins, Ernest H., "Descriptions of pagan divinities from Petrarch to Chaucer" in Speculum vol. 32 (1957) pp. 511-522.
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