Sun Tzu
Sun Tzu | |
|---|---|
 Statue of Sun Tzu in Yurihama, Tottori, Japan | |
| Occupation | military commander |
| Period | 722–481 BC or 403–221 BC(disputed) |
| Subject | military strategy |
| Notable works | Art of War |
Sun Tzu (simplified Chinese: 孙子; traditional Chinese: 孫子; pinyin: Sūn Zǐ) ("Master Sun"), also called Sun Wu (Chinese: 孫武), is traditionally considered to be the author of The Art of War (also simply called the Sun Tzu), an immensely influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy. The work is considered to be a prime example of Taoist strategy.[1] Whether or not he is an authentic historical figure is vigorously debated by historians. Traditional accounts place him in the Spring and Autumn Period of China (722–481 BC) as a heroic general of the King of Wu that lived c. 544—496 BC. Scholars accepting his historicity place him in the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), based on the descriptions of warfare in the Art of War. Traditional accounts state that his descendant, Sun Bin, also wrote a master treatise on military tactics.
Sun Tzu, both as a author of the Art of War and a legendary figure, had an immense impact on Chinese and Asian history and culture. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Art of War gained popularity and saw practical use in Western society. He remains highly influential in both Asian and Western culture and politics.
Biography
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Historians debate whether or not Sun Tzu was a real historical figure. According to traditional sources, such as the 2nd century BC biography written by Sima Qian, Sun Tzu is born in Qi during the Spring and Autumn Period of China (722–481 BC) and becomes a heroic general for the king of Wu, Ho Lu. His victories inspire him to write the Art of War. Historians commonly place the writing of the Art of War in the Warring States Period (403–221 BC), based on its description of warfare. It was a time of constant war between seven nations (Zhao, Qi, Qin, Chu, Han, Wei and Yan) seeking to control all of China.[2]
According to Sima Qian, the king of Wu tested Sun Tzu's skill, commanding him to train a harem of three hundred and sixty concubines. Sun Tzu divided them into two companies, appointing the two concubines most favored by the king as the company commanders. Sun Tzu received giggles when he first commanded the companies, telling them in response that the general is at fault if his soldiers do not understand. He taught them the maneuver again, and again they laughed and tittered. Sun Tzu ordered the execution of the two favored concubines, to the king's vigorous protest. He explained that if his soldiers understand but do not obey, it is the fault of the officers. Sun Tzu also said once a general receives his orders, it is his duty to carry them out perfectly, even if the king protests. New officers were named and the two companies performed their maneuvers flawlessly thereafter. According to this biography, Sun Tzu further proved his theories on the battlefield with a successful military career and wrote the Art of War based on his tested expertise. His descendant, Sun Bin, also became a famous scholar of the military arts.[3]
Historicity
Skeptical scholars have expressed doubt in Sun Tzu's historicity and the traditional dating of the Art of War. This skepticism is fueled by a variety of factors including historical inaccuracies and anachronisms in the text, as well as the unlikelihood of story involving the execution of the king's favorite concubines. Increasing skepticism, even to the point of completely denying the existance of a historical figure named Sun Wu (Sun Tzu), has lead to acrimonious debate between skeptics and traditionalists, especially in the China. Attribution of the authorship of the Art of War varies among scholars, including Sun Tzu, the famous Chu scholar Wu Zixu, another unknown author, a school of thought in Qi or Wu, and Sun Bin.[4]
Traditionalists attribute the authorship of the Art of War to the historical figure Sun Wu, who is chronicled in the Shih Chi and the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yueh. He was reputedly active in the early sixth century BCE, beginning c. 512 BCE. The appearance of features from the Art of War in other historical texts is considered to be proof of his historicity and authorship. Certain strategic concepts, such as terrain classification, are attributed to Sun Tzu. Their use in other works, such as by the compilers of the Ssu-ma Fa, is consider proof of Sun Tzu's historical priority.[5]
Other scholars have identified a number of issues with the traditionalist view. They point to a number of anachronisms in the Art of War that include terms, technology, philosophical ideas, technology, events and military techniques. There is a disparity between the large scale wars and sophisticated techniques detailed in the text and the small scale, more primitive battles that predominated during the sixth century BCE. There is also a lack of contemporary evidence supporting the centuries later accounts of Sun Tzu. For example, there is no corroborating support for Sun Wu's role in the wars between Wu and Yueh in Tso Chuan, considered the authoritative record of the period.[6]
Regardless of Sun Tzu's historicity or the actual authorship of the Art of War, the figure of Sun Tzu and his traditionally attributed work have been vastly influential.[7]
The Art of War
The Art of War is said to have been penned by Sun Tzu and was originally called the Sun Tzu Ping Fa (Pinyin: Sunzi Bingfa), or simply the Sun Tzu. It presents a complete philosophy of war for managing conflicts and winning clear victories. Contrary to popular perceptions, it contains not only the writing of the original author, but also commentary and clarifications from later military philosophers, such as Li Ch'uan and Tu Mu. It is widely accepted as a masterpiece on strategy and has been referenced by generals and theorists throughout history.[8]
Sun Tzu makes use of language that would be unusual for a Western text on warfare and strategy. For example, the eleventh chapter of the book states that a leader must be "serene and inscrutable", capable of comprehending "unfathomable plans". The text is filled with similar remarks that are often confusing to a Western audience. The meaning of such statements are clearer when interpreted in the context of Taoist thought and practice. Sun Tzu viewed the ideal general as an enlightened Taoist master. The Art of War is distinguished from its Western counterparts, Clausewitz's On War for example, by this spiritual dimension. Awareness of the Taoist viewpoint of the Art of War is essential to understanding the intended meaning of the classic.[9]
The book is not only popular among military theorists, but also among political leaders and those in business management. The book addresses strategy in a broad fashion, despite the title, touching upon public administration and planning. The text outlines theories of battle but also advocates diplomacy and cultivating relationships with other nations as essential to the health of the state.[8]
Of the texts written before the unification of China, six major works survived, including Sun Tzu's classic. During the Song Dynasty, these six works were combined with a Tang Dynasty text into the collected called the Seven Military Classics. As part of that compilation, the Art of War formed the foundations of orthodox military theory in China and was required reading to pass the tests needed for imperial appointment to military positions.[10]
Related text
During the early 1970s, scholars uncovered a large collection of ancient texts written in amazingly preserved bamboo slips. Among them were the Art of War and Sun Bin's Military Methods. Although Military Methods was noted by Han Dynasty bibliographies as extant and written by a descendent of Sun Tzu, it had since been lost. The finding of Sun Bin's work was considered an extremely important find, due to a variety of factors including Sun Bin's relationship to Sun Tzu and the work's illustration of military thought in late Chinese antiquity. The discovery as a whole expanded the total known Chinese military works by hundreds, though Sun Bin's text is the only known additional surviving text from the ancient period.[11]
Influence and importance
Sun Tzu's Art of War has been deeply influential. It is said the first emperor of a unified China, Qin Shi Huang, thought the book invaluable in ending the Age of Warring States. Japan was introduced to Sun Tzu's work c. AD 760, quickly becoming popular among her generals. It is considered an important influence on the unification of Japan. Mastery of its teachings was considered a mark of respect among the samurai and several influential samurai both exhorted and exemplified its teachings, such as Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu.[12]
Napoleon is said to have studied Sun Tzu's military writings and used them to successfully wage war against the rest of Europe. Napoleon's disregard for some of the central principles, such as attentiveness to temporal conditions, is largely credited for his eventual defeat in Russia. Admiral of the Fleet Tōgō Heihachirō, who led Japan's forces to victory against Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, was a famous disciple of the Art of War's teachings.[13]
Mao Zedong partially credited his defeat of Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists in 1949 to the Art of War. It strongly influenced Mao's writings about guerrilla warfare, which further influenced communist insurgencies throughout the world. A further example of its explicit modern influence is its use by General Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. during the Gulf War, where the general put to practice Sun Tzu's principles of deception, speed, and attacking the enemy's weakness.[12]
A modern interpretation of Sun Tzu and his importance throughout Chinese history is critical in understanding China's push to become a superpower in the 21st century. Hundreds of modern Chinese scholars explicitly rely on historical strategic lessons and the Art of War in developing their theories. They perceive a direct relationship between their modern struggles and those of China in Sun Tzu's time. There is a great perceived value in the teachings of Sun Tzu, and other traditional Chinese writers, and they are used regularly in developing the strategies of the Chinese state and its leaders.[14]
See also
Footnotes
- ^ Simpkins & Simpkins 1999, pp. 131–33
- ^ McNeilly 2001, pp. 3–4
- ^ Bradford 2000, pp. 134–135
- ^ Sawyer 2005, pp. 34–35
- ^ Sawyer 1993, pp. 149–150
- ^ Sawyer 1993, pp. 149–150
- ^ Sawyer 2005, pp. 35
- ^ a b McNeilly 2001, p. 5
- ^ Hanzhang & Wilkinson 1998, pp. 16–18
- ^ Sawyer 1994, pp. 13–14
- ^ Sawyer 1994, p. 14
- ^ a b McNeilly 2001, pp. 6–7
- ^ Tung 2001, p. 805
- ^ McNeilly 2001, p. 7
References
- Bradford, Alfred S. (2000), With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World, Praeger Publishers, ISBN 0275952592
- Hanzhang, Tao; Wilkinson, Robert (1998), The Art of War, Wordsworth Editions, ISBN 9781853267796
- McNeilly, Mark R. (2001), Sun Tzu and the Art of Modern Warfare, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195133404
- Sawyer, Ralph D. (1994), The Art of War, Westview Press, ISBN 081331951X
- Sawyer, Ralph D. (2005), The Essential Art of War, Basic Books, ISBN 0465072046
- Simpkins, Annellen; Simpkins, C.Alexander (1999), Taoism: a guide to living in the balance, Tuttle Publishing, ISBN 9780804831734
- Tung, R.L. (2001), "Strategic Management Thought in East Asia", in Warner, Malcolm (ed.), Comparative Management:Critical Perspectives on Business and Management, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415132630
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
- Works by Sun Tzu at Project Gutenberg
- Sun Tzu's Art of War in Information Warfare from the Institute for National Strategic Studies at National Defense University.
- Sonshi A large and popular site about the Art of War.