Jump to content

Gender-critical feminism

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by DanielRigal (talk | contribs) at 18:20, 24 November 2024 (Restored revision 1257908161 by GreenC bot (talk): Remove the sidebar. While Radical Femininism is a relatred topic it is contested whether this is a part of it. It is not included in the sidebar itself.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Gender-critical feminism, also known as trans-exclusionary radical feminism or TERFism,[1][2][3][4] is an ideology or movement that opposes what it refers to as "gender ideology",[5] the concept of gender identity and transgender rights, especially gender self-identification. Gender-critical feminists believe that sex is biological and immutable,[6] while believing gender, including both gender identity and gender roles, to be inherently oppressive. They reject the concept of transgender identities.[7]

Originating as a fringe movement within radical feminism mainly in the United States,[4][8][9] trans-exclusionary radical feminism has achieved prominence in the United Kingdom[10] and South Korea,[11][12] where it has been at the centre of high-profile controversies. It has been linked to promotion of disinformation[13][14][15] and to the anti-gender movement.[16] Anti-gender rhetoric has seen increasing circulation in gender-critical feminist discourse since 2016, including use of the term "gender ideology".[5] In several countries, gender-critical feminist groups have formed alliances with right-wing, far-right, and anti-feminist organisations.[17][18][19][20]

Gender-critical feminism has been described as transphobic by feminist and scholarly critics,[1][4] and is opposed by many feminist, LGBT rights, and human rights organizations.[21][22] The Council of Europe has condemned gender-critical ideology, among other ideologies, and linked it to "virulent attacks on the rights of LGBTI people" in Hungary, Poland, Russia, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and other countries.[23] UN Women has described the gender-critical movement, among other movements, as extreme anti-rights movements that employ hate propaganda and disinformation.[24][25]

Terminology

Trans-exclusionary radical feminism

Trans-inclusive cisgender radical feminist blogger Viv Smythe has been credited with popularizing the term "trans-exclusionary radical feminism" in 2008 as an online shorthand.[26] It was used to describe a minority of feminists[27] who espouse sentiments that other feminists consider transphobic,[28][29] including the rejection of the predominant view in feminist organizations that trans women are women,[30] opposition to transgender rights,[30] and the exclusion of trans women in women's spaces and organizations.[31] Smythe has also been credited with having coined the acronym "TERF", due to a blog post she wrote reacting to the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival's policy of denying admittance to trans women. Though it was created as a deliberately neutral descriptor, "TERF" is now typically considered derogatory.[32]

Gender-critical feminism

Claire Thurlow said that since the 2010s, there has been a shift in language from "TERF" to "gender critical feminism", which she described as a dog whistle for anti-trans politics.[1] Researcher Aleardo Zanghellini argues that "gender-critical feminism advocates reserving women's spaces for cis women".[33] Mauro Cabral Grinspan, Ilana Eloit, David Paternotte and Mieke Verloo describe "gender-critical feminism" as a "self-definition by some individuals and groups labelled TERFs" and argue that the term is problematic because it serves to rebrand anti-trans activism.[34]

Views

Sex and gender

Gender-critical feminists equate "women" with what they consider to be a "female sex class", and view historical and contemporary oppression of women as being rooted in their being female, while "gender" is a system of social norms which functions to oppress women on the basis of their sex.[7][35][36] They believe sex is biological and cannot be changed,[37] and that equity legislation protecting against discrimination based on sex should be interpreted as solely referring to biological sex.[38][better source needed] Furthermore, gender critics emphasise the view that sex is binary,[39] as opposed to a continuous spectrum, and that the two sexes have an objective, material basis as opposed to being socially constructed.[40]

Gender-critical feminists promote the idea that sex is important.[41][42][43] In Material Girls, Kathleen Stock discusses four areas in which she expresses the view that sex-associated differences are important, regardless of gender: medicine, sport, sexual orientation, and the social effects of heterosexuality (such as gender pay gaps and sexual assault).[44] Holly Lawford-Smith states: "Gender critical feminism is not 'about' trans. It is about sex."[45] Lawford-Smith said of gender-critical feminism: "It is about being critical of gender, and this has implications for a wide range of feminist issues, not just gender identity." Writing of her view of a "gender-critical feminist utopia", she said: "While there will still be the same people who think of themselves as 'transmen', 'transwomen' or 'non-binary' today, they will not use those labels, because 'feminine' will be a way that males can be, 'masculine' will be a way that women can be, and 'androgynous' will be a way that anyone can be."[46]

In gender-critical discourse, the terms man and woman are used as sex-terms, assigned no more meaning than adult human male and adult human female respectively, in contrast to feminist theorists who argue these terms embody a social category distinct from matters of biology (usually referred to as gender), with masculinity and femininity representing normative characteristics thereof.[47][48] The phrase adult human female has become a slogan in gender-critical politics, and has been described as transphobic.[49]

"Sex-based rights"

A sticker promoting gender-critical feminism

Gender critical feminists advocate what they call "sex-based rights", arguing that "women's human rights are based upon sex" and that "these rights are being eroded by the promotion of 'gender identity'".[10]

Human rights scholar Sandra Duffy described the concept of "sex-based rights" as "a fiction with the pretense of legality", noting that the word "sex" in international human rights law does not share the implications of the word "sex" in gender-critical discourse and is widely agreed to also refer to gender.[50] Catharine A. MacKinnon noted that "the recognition [that discrimination against trans people is discrimination on the basis of sex, that is gender, the social meaning of sex] does not, contrary to allegations of anti-trans self-identified feminists, endanger women or feminism", they expand by saying "women do not have 'sex-based rights' in the affirmative sense some in this group seem to think".[51]

Socialisation and gender nonconformity

Gender critical feminists generally see gender as a system in which women are oppressed for reasons intrinsically related to their sex, and emphasize male violence against women, particularly involving institutions such as the sex industry, as central to women's oppression.[52][53] Holders of such views often contend that trans women cannot fully be women because they were assigned male at birth and have experienced some degree of male privilege.[54] Germaine Greer has said that it "wasn't fair" that "a man who has lived for 40 years as a man and had children with a woman and enjoyed the services—the unpaid services of a wife, which most women will never know…then decides that the whole time he's been a woman".[55]

These ideas have been met with criticism from believers in other branches of feminism. Sociologist Patricia Elliot argues that the view that one's socialization as a girl or woman defines "women's experience" assumes that cis women's experiences are homogeneous and discounts the possibility that trans and cis women may share the experience of being disparaged for their perceived femininity.[56] Others argue that expectations of one's assigned sex are something enforced upon them, beginning at early socialization, and transgender youth, especially gender-nonconforming children, often experience different, worse treatment involving reprisals for their deviation therefrom.[57]

Transfeminist Julia Serano has referred to implying that trans women may experience some degree of male privilege pre-transition as "denying [them] the closet", and has compared it to saying that a cisgender gay person experienced straight privilege before coming out. She has also compared it to if a cisgender girl was raised as a boy against her will, and how the two scenarios tend to be viewed differently by a cisgender audience, despite being ostensibly similar experiences from a transfeminine perspective.[58]

Gender transition

In The Transsexual Empire (1979), feminist Janice Raymond denounces the act of transition as "rape", by virtue of "reducing the real female form to an artifact, appropriating this body for themselves".[59] Helen Joyce has described people who undergo transition, whether happier for it or not, as "a huge problem to a sane world".[60]

In her own book Gyn/Ecology (1979), originally published one year earlier, Mary Daly, who had served as Raymond's thesis supervisor,[61] insisted that as sex reassignment surgery could not reproduce female chromosomes, the clitoris, the ability to give birth, the ability to menstruate, or a female life history, it could "not produce women".[62]: 67–68  Sheila Jeffreys and Germaine Greer have made similar remarks.[63] Daly presented gender transition as the result of a grotesque patriarchal urge to violate natural boundaries and imitate motherhood, assimilating it to a broader concept of "male motherhood" that also included the Catholic priesthood, and claimed that it represented a male technological attempt to replace women altogether.[62]: 71–72  She also compared the idea that a trans woman could be a woman despite lacking a clitoris to the ideology behind "African female genital mutilation".[62]: 167 

In a response to remarks by Elizabeth Grosz, philosopher Eva Hayward characterized this type of view as telling trans people who have had sex reassignment surgery: "Don't exist."[64]

Intersex conditions

Radical feminist Germaine Greer called women with XY AIS "men" and "incomplete males" in her 1999 book The Whole Woman. Iain Morland responded that "in trying to criticize the social construction of femaleness and intersex, Greer disenfranchised precisely those people who live at the intersection of the two categories".[65][66] Greer admitted in 2016 that defining men and women solely using chromosomes was wrong.[55] Later gender-critical feminists have disputed the prevalence of intersex conditions, arguing that Anne Fausto-Sterling's estimate of 1.7% comprises mostly cases not normally considered ambiguous "in genitalia or in reproductive organs", like nonclassic CAH, Turner syndrome, or Klinefelter syndrome.[40] Citing research showing much lower prevalence, Kathleen Stock and Holly Lawford-Smith have both argued that the existence of intersex conditions does not impact the usefulness of sex categories,[45][67] with Lawford-Smith saying that the term "assigned female at birth" has been "appropriated from people with differences of sexual development", and "used by trans activists for everyone, even though in more than 99% of cases, as we have seen, sex is accurately observed, not 'assigned'".[45]

Most intersex organizations subscribe to a mixed sociological perspective of sex and gender, and as trans legislation and subjects overlaps heavily with intersex legislation, intersex people are often involved in trans activism.[68][69] Intersex women who display a mixed sexual phenotype often face attacks similar to trans people.[70][71]

Sexual orientation

Gender critical feminists believe that transgender rights are a threat to the rights of gay people.[72] Gender critical lesbians and feminists are a minority in the UK: polls show that cisgender lesbians and bisexual women are among the most trans-inclusive groups in Britain.[72]

Kathleen Stock, for instance, has said that allowing trans women to call themselves women "threatens a secure understanding of the concept 'lesbian'".[67] Magdalen Berns, co-founder of the group For Women Scotland, has said that "there is no such thing as a lesbian with a penis" in regards to the idea of some trans women being lesbians.[73]

Julie Bindel has said that transgender women cannot be lesbians, instead qualifying them as straight men trying to "join the club", and has compared transgender activism to men sexually assaulting lesbian women for rejecting their advances.[74][75]

Many other gender critical groups and pundits have spoken of the transgender rights movement as a men's sexual rights movement, designed to pressure lesbians into having sex with trans women.[76][77][78]

Ray Blanchard's theory of autogynephilia is a recurrent talking point in TERF discourse, where it is usually presented as established science. It characterises trans women's gender identities as caused by sexual orientation or sexual deviance.[79] The theory has never received wide acceptance in sexology or psychology.[79]

Conversion therapy

Kathleen Stock has argued that definitions of conversion therapy and bans against it should not include gender identity conversion therapy on the basis that it risks criminalising "proper therapeutic exploration",[80] and that she believes it comes into conflict with bans against sexual orientation conversion therapy.[81] This latter argument has been criticized on the basis that doctors affirming transgender youth do not attempt to alter sexual orientation, which is understood to define who they are attracted to, and respect the person's expressed gender identity and sexual orientation.[81] Gender-critical campaign groups in the United Kingdom such as Sex Matters have described the provision of gender-affirming care for transgender youth as "modern conversion therapy" which erases gay identities and argued it should be criminalized.[82][83][84] Trans-exclusionary radical feminists in France campaigned against a ban on conversion therapy arguing that most transgender teenagers assigned female at birth aren't really trans.[85]

In March 2022, gender-critical groups campaigned to have the UK government remove gender identity change efforts from a proposed ban on conversion therapy.[citation needed][86]

The Trevor Project and International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association have stated "gender critical therapy" is another name for conversion therapy.[87][88] Heron Greenesmith has reported on gender critical boards sharing lists of therapists whose end goal is the rejection of trans identity for parents of trans youth.[89] The gender-critical group Genspect promotes "gender exploratory therapy", which is also considered to be a form of conversion therapy.[90] They argue that transgender identities stem from unprocessed trauma, childhood abuse, internalized homophobia or misogyny, sexual fetishism, and autism.[91]

History

Early history (before 2000)

Although trans people were active in feminist movements in the 1960s and earlier,[92] the 1970s saw conflict among some early radical feminists over the inclusion of trans women in feminism.[93][94]

In 1973, trans-exclusionary radical feminist activists from the Daughters of Bilitis voted to expel Beth Elliott, an out trans woman, from the organization.[95] The same year, Elliott was scheduled to perform at the West Coast Lesbian Conference, which she had helped organize; a group of trans-exclusionary radical feminist activists calling themselves the Gutter Dykes leafletted the conference protesting her inclusion and keynote speaker Robin Morgan updated her speech to describe Elliott as "an opportunist, an infiltrator, and a destroyer – with the mentality of a rapist".[95][1][96] An impromptu vote was held with the majority supporting her inclusion in the conference; when Elliott subsequently entered the stage to perform the Gutter Dykes rushed to the stage to attack her and attacked performers Robin Tyler and Patty Harrison who had stepped in to defend her.[95][1][96]

At the 1973 Christopher Street Liberation Day rally, trans-exclusionary radical feminists tried to stop Sylvia Rivera from speaking.[95] Jean O'Leary publicly denounced Sylvia Rivera as "parodying womanhood" and Lesbian Feminist Liberation distributed flyers seeking to keep "female impersonators" off the stage.[97]

Trans-exclusionary radical feminist activists protested Sandy Stone's position at Olivia Records, a trans-inclusive lesbian separatist music collective. In 1977 The Gorgons, a trans-exclusionary lesbian separatist paramilitary group, issued a death threat to Stone and came to the event armed though were intercepted by security. Escalating threats against the collective motivated Stone to leave the group.[95]

Janice Raymond's The Transsexual Empire, published in 1979, examined what she considered to be the role of transgender identity in reinforcing traditional gender stereotypes, in particular the ways in which the "medical-psychiatric complex" was medicalizing gender identity, and the social and political context that contributed to the image of gender-affirming treatment and surgery as therapeutic medicine.[98] Raymond maintained that this was based in the "patriarchal myths" of "male mothering", and "making of woman according to man's image", and that transgender identity aimed "to colonize feminist identification, culture, politics and sexuality".[98] The book goes on to say that "All transsexuals rape women's bodies by reducing the real female form to an artifact" and that "the problem of transsexualism would best be served by morally mandating it out of existence".[99] Several authors have since characterized this work as transphobic and constituting hate speech, as well as lacking any serious intellectual basis.[100][101][102][103]: 233–234 

In 1991 Nancy Burkholder, a trans woman, was ejected from the Michigan Womyn's Music Festival (MWMF), after refusing to answer when another woman asked her whether or not she was transgender.[104][95] This removal was justified by the retroactive instatement of a womyn-born womyn policy by the MWMF organisers.[103]: 233–245  For both the 1992 and 1993 MWMF events, Janis Walworth, a cisgender lesbian feminist, organised an educational and outreach program at the MWMF distributing pamphlets titled "Gender Myths".[96] During the 1993 MWMF event, Walworth was told by event security that she and any trans women in their group would be required to leave the event "for their own safety".[96] Although an offer of bodyguard protection was provided by a group of leather lesbians attending the festival, Walworth's group decided instead to set up an outreach camp outside the festival gates.[96][95] This camp, later known as Camp Trans, continued to provide education and outreach attempts while protesting the festival's trans exclusionary practices until the festival's final event in 2015.[96][95]

By country

Russia

In Russia, trans-exclusionary feminists, who position themselves as radical, constitute one of the two main streams of feminism. Unlike their opponents adhering to intersectional feminism, the trans-exclusionary group Womenation and a number of other trans-exclusionary feminists supported the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 and came into conflict with Ukrainian feminist movement. Vanya Mark Solovey, a gender researcher, argues that the solidarity of Russian trans-exclusionary feminists with Russian policy towards Ukraine is closely related to the anti-trans sentiments of the Russian authorities.[105]

South Korea

In 2016, the radical feminist online community Womad split from the larger radical feminist online community Megalia after Megalia issued a ban on the use of certain explicit slurs against gay men and transgender people. This change in policy led to the migration of anti-LGBT members.[106]

In February 2020, Sookmyung Women's University accepted its first transgender student. The decision prompted a strong backlash both within and outside of the university, including from radical feminist student organizations. However, some students, and the university's Student and Minority Human Rights Commission, supported the decision.[11][107][108]

Lee Hyun-Jae has noted that in the South Korean "feminism reboot" of the early 21st century, the radical stance of recent feminists have been "oriented in an identity politics based on biological sex", and that "the radical stance of today's [young] feminists has a tendency to emphasize the identity of the 'female body' as based on the category of the 'biological woman,' taking an attitude of excluding 'biological' men refugees, and transgender people".[12] Jinsook Kim has noted that "in Korean contexts, there have been increasing concerns over popular forms of feminism based on a strong female identity rooted in notions of biological sex, the pursuit of female-only and -first politics, and the refusal of solidarity with other social minority groups".[109]

United Kingdom

In 2016, the House of Commons' Women and Equalities Committee issued a report recommending that the Gender Recognition Act 2004 be updated "in line with the principles of gender self-declaration".[110] Later in 2016, in England and Wales, a proposal was developed under Theresa May's government to revise the Act to introduce self-identification, with a public consultation opening in 2018. This proposed reform became a key locus of conflict for the emerging gender-critical movement, seeking to block reform of the Act, with a number of groups such as Fair Play For Women, For Women Scotland, and Woman's Place UK being formed. 2018 found a significant majority of respondents in favour of the GRA reforms,[111] however, in 2020, Boris Johnson's government dropped the reforms, instead reducing the cost of a gender recognition certificate and moving the application process online.

Another key locus of conflict for the emerging movement was the stance of LGBT rights charity Stonewall on trans issues. In 2015, Stonewall had begun campaigning for trans equality, with Stonewall head Ruth Hunt apologising for the organisation's previous failure to do so.[112] In 2019, the LGB Alliance was founded in opposition to Stonewall, accusing the organization of having "undermined women's sex-based rights and protections" and attempting "to introduce confusion between biological sex and the notion of gender".[113]

The year 2019 saw the formation of the Women's Human Rights Campaign (now Women's Declaration International) by noted gender-critical feminist Sheila Jeffreys and co-founder Heather Brunskell-Evans. The group published a manifesto titled the Declaration on Women's Sex-Based Rights, which argued that recognising trans women as women "constitutes discrimination against women" and called for the "elimination of that act".[114][115]

J. K. Rowling is a prominent gender-critical feminist in the United Kingdom.

A 2020 paper in SAGE Open said that "the case against trans inclusion in the United Kingdom has been presented primarily through social media and blog-type or journalistic online platforms lacking the traditional prepublication checks of academic peer review".[116] Some public figures such as Graham Linehan[117][118][119] and J. K. Rowling[120][121][122] have often been featured in gender-critical social media posts. The Internet forum Mumsnet has also been a prominent hub of online gender-critical discourse.[123][124]

Gender-critical views are common in the British media.[30][125] The British press frequently publishes articles critical of trans people and trans issues.[125] In 2018, the US version of The Guardian published an editorial condemning an editorial in the UK version of The Guardian for transphobia, because it portrayed trans rights as being opposed to the rights of cis women.[126] Drawing on theory of radicalization, Craig McLean argues that discourse on transgender-related issues in the UK has been radicalized in response to the activities of what he terms the anti-transgender movement that pushes "a radical agenda to deny the basic rights of trans people (...) under the cover of 'free speech'".[127]

In Resolution 2417 (2022), the Council of Europe condemned "the highly prejudicial anti-gender, gender-critical and anti-trans narratives which reduce the fight for the equality of LGBTI people to what these movements deliberately mischaracterise as 'gender ideology' or 'LGBTI ideology'. Such narratives deny the very existence of LGBTI people, dehumanise them, and often falsely portray their rights as being in conflict with women's and children's rights, or societal and family values in general. All of these are deeply damaging to LGBTI people, while also harming women's and children's rights and social cohesion". The resolution further deplored "the extensive and often virulent attacks on the rights of LGBTI people that have been occurring for several years in, among other countries, Hungary, Poland, the Russian Federation, Turkey and the United Kingdom".[23][128][129]

Sex-based rights

The term "sex-based rights" is used, primarily in the UK, to refer to a variety of legal positions and political objectives, including:

  • Existing exceptions defined in the UK Equality Act 2010. These exceptions do not grant any right for individuals to be offered single-sex services, but do allow service providers to offer such services, if they are "a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim".[130][131]
  • Proposed changes to the Equality Act to clarify sex as meaning biological sex[132][133][134]
  • The belief that sex is central to the definition of women and women's rights, as opposed to basing law on gender identity.[135]

The gender-critical movement argues that recognition of transgender women as women conflicts with these rights.[136]

In 2019, the Maya Forstater v Centre for Global Development tribunal case was launched by Maya Forstater, crowdfunding over £120,000. Earlier that year, Forstater's consulting contract for the Centre for Global Development was not renewed after she made a number of social media posts saying that men cannot change into women.[137] Forstater subsequently sued the centre, alleging that she had been discriminated against because of her views.[138] Forstater lost her initial case, with the judge ruling that her beliefs were not protected under the Equality Act due to their absolutism. However, in April 2021, the initial judgement was reversed, with the Employment Appeal Tribunal ruling that gender-critical beliefs were protected under the Equality Act.[139] A full merits hearing on Forstater's claim that she lost her employment as a result of these beliefs was heard in March 2022, and the decision, delivered in July 2022, was that Forstater had been subjected to direct discrimination and victimisation because of her gender-critical beliefs.[140]

In October 2020, Ann Sinnott, at the time a director of the LGB Alliance, initiated a legal case calling for a judicial review of the Equality and Human Rights Commission's guidance on the Equality Act 2010, crowdfunding almost £100,000 for legal fees. In May 2021 the case was found by the court to be unarguable, Justice Henshaw stating that "the claimant has shown no arguable reason to believe the Code has misled or will mislead service providers about their responsibilities under the Act".[141]

The Forstater case has been used as a precedent for several claims of discrimination against people holding gender-critical views. Employment tribunals have delivered successful judgements in cases against a barrister's chambers, Arts Council England, Westminster Council and Social Work England. Claims against Girlguiding UK and United Kingdom Council for Psychotherapy ended in settlements, while a claim against the Department for Work and Pensions failed after the claimant was deemed to have gone too far by misgendering service users. The barrister Georgiana Calvert-Lee commented to the Guardian: "Above all, in a pluralistic society, which is what we want, you have to accept that people are going to have different views."[142]

In January 2024, Jo Phoenix was successful in a claim against the Open University for discrimination on the grounds of gender-critical beliefs. The tribunal ruled that she had been constructively unfairly dismissed, and that she had suffered victimisation and harassment in the form of an open letter from 386 of her colleagues, as well as individual disparagement for her views, including one professor comparing her to "the racist uncle at the Christmas table".[143]

In August 2024, Cambridgeshire County Council conceded that it had discriminated against Lizzie Pitt, a social worker, by initiating a disciplinary process against her following her gender-critical statements made at an LGBT support group. Pitt described the concession as a "win for the right side of history". The council admitted liability and agreed to pay compensation of £54,000.[144][145]

In August 2024, a private settlement was reached between the Metanoia Institute and student psychotherapist James Esses. In a statement released following the settlement, the Metanoia Institute stated that it failed to follow its processes in not affording Esses a hearing prior to his expulsion after he expressed his gender-critical views and campaigned against a proposed ban on conversion therapy. In the statement, the institute apologized for publicizing the expulsion on social media.[146][147]

United States

Although gender-critical feminism originated in the United States in the 1970s, it has largely fallen out of favor among American feminists.[30] Some gender-critical organizations do remain, however, such as WoLF, a gender-critical feminist organization that operates mainly within the United States.[30]

Analysis

Scholarly analysis

Lesbian studies scholars Carly Thomsen and Laurie Essig note that "transness has been and is the object of deep hostility within some marginalized forms of feminism. Skepticism among earlier anti-trans feminists, such as Janice Raymond, about trans women being "real" women has morphed into J.K. Rowling's Twitter feed where she has insisted that trans women are not women. These ideas are, of course, deplorable, but they are also quite fringe within feminist studies and activism in the US".[8]

Clair Thurlow notes that the more explicitly hateful language used by early trans-exclusionary radical feminists failed to gain support, forcing them to pivot towards euphemisms and dog-whistles such as using "pro-woman" to mean "anti-trans", "protecting sex-based rights" meant excluding trans people, and "trans-exclusionary radical feminism" became "gender-critical feminism". This allowed trans-exclusionary feminism to appear reasonable to the average person while maintaining their anti-trans meanings to other anti-trans activists.[1]

Gender studies scholars Serena Bassi and Greta LaFleur have noted that TERFism started out as a fringe group among English speaking cultural feminists in the 1970s that grew rapidly due to media exposure.[4]

Cristan Williams notes that radical feminism has historically been predominantly trans-inclusive and considers trans-exclusionary views a minority or fringe view within radical feminism.[2]

Carrera-Fernández and DePalma argued that "the increasingly belligerent popular discourses promoted by TERF groups since the 1970s [are] appropriating feminist discourses to produce arguments that contradict basic premises of feminism".[148]

Henry F. Fradella said that most contemporary feminists are supportive of trans people, and that gender-critical feminists are a small but vocal group who believe that trans rights threaten the rights of cis women. Most gender-critical arguments for this belief, he says, are false, and "misconstrue or ignore empirical data from both the natural and social sciences". Gender-critical feminism risks legal equality and contributes to criminalization of trans people.[149]

In July 2018, Sally Hines, a University of Leeds professor of sociology and gender studies scholar, wrote in The Economist that feminism and trans rights have been falsely portrayed as being in conflict by a minority of anti-transgender feminists, who often "reinforce the extremely offensive trope of the trans woman as a man in drag who is a danger to women". Hines criticized these feminists for fueling "rhetoric of paranoia and hyperbole" against trans people, saying that they abandon or undermine feminist principles in their anti-trans narratives, such as bodily autonomy and self-determination of gender, and employ "reductive models of biology and restrictive understandings of the distinction between sex and gender" in defense of such narratives. She concluded with a call for explicit recognition of anti-transgender feminism as a violation of equality and dignity, and "a doctrine that runs counter to the ability to fulfill a liveable life or, often, a life at all".[150]

Briar Dickey notes that "British 'trans-exclusionary radical feminist' (TERF) discourse has often been contextualised in fringe radical feminist thought", and argues that "the contextualisation of contemporary TERF discourse as an extension and evolution of fringe second-wave feminism [...] neglects its relationship to a wider international wave of anti-transgender sentiment" anchored in conservative and religious movements.[9]

Researcher Aleardo Zanghellini argues that "gender-critical feminism advocates reserving women's spaces for cis women" as well as that "Many problems in gender-critical thought are consistent with the explanation that paranoid structuralism is too often presupposed in gender-critical work".[33]

Mauro Cabral Grinspan, Ilana Eloit, David Paternotte and Mieke Verloo dislike the expression "gender-critical feminism", saying that it allows trans-exclusionary feminists to rebrand transphobic activism.[34]

Abbie E. Goldberg argues that "trans-exclusionary radical feminism (TERF) has contained similar cisnormative arguments to those of social conservatives, promoting vilification of people with a trans lived experience in the guise of so-called gender-critical feminism" and that "this TERF approach has been used to promote exclusionary and discriminatory legislation, such as prohibiting equal access to public toilets and the right to be treated in accordance with one's gender in workplaces, accommodations, and public venues".[151][page needed]

Relationship with the anti-gender movement

Bassi and LaFleur write that "the trans-exclusionary feminist (TERF) movement and the so-called anti-gender movement are only rarely distinguished as movements with distinct constitutions and aims".[4] Pearce et al. note that the concept of "gender ideology" "saw increasing circulation in trans-exclusionary radical feminist discourse" from around 2016.[5] Claire House noted in 2023 that "key streams within trans exclusionary women's and feminist movements increasingly engage in collaborative action with right-wing populist-centered anti-gender coalitions, which include right-wing religious, conservative, and right-wing extremist actors".[152] Claire Thurlow writes that "despite efforts to obscure the point, gender critical feminism continues to rely on transphobic tropes, moral panics and essentialist understandings of men and women. These factors also continue to link trans-exclusionary feminism to anti-feminist reactionary politics and other 'anti-gender' movements".[1]

UN Women has described the gender-critical, anti-gender and men's rights movements as anti-rights movements that overlap in opposition to what they describe as "gender ideology", which the agency described as "a term used to oppose the concept of gender, women's rights, and the rights of LGBTIQ+ people broadly." They argued these groups have attempted to "frame equality for women and LGBTIQ+ people as a threat to so-called 'traditional' family values" and linked them to "hateful propaganda and disinformation to target and attempt to delegitimize people with diverse sexual orientations, gender identities, gender expressions, and sex characteristics."[24][25]

Political alliances with conservatives and the far right

Some trans-exclusionary radical feminists have allied with conservative or far-right groups and politicians who oppose legislation that would expand transgender rights in the United States.[153][154] According to der Freitag: "TERF positions are now mostly heard from conservatives and right-wing extremists."[20]

Feminist philosopher Judith Butler has described the anti-gender movements as fascist trends and cautioned self-declared feminists from allying with such movements in targeting trans, non-binary, and genderqueer people.[17] Butler said that "it is painful to see that Trump's position that gender should be defined by biological sex, and that the evangelical and right-wing Catholic effort to purge 'gender' from education and public policy accords with the trans-exclusionary radical feminists' return to biological essentialism".[155] Sophia Siddiqui, the deputy editor of Race & Class, has argued that "'gender critical' feminists play into the hands of far-right street forces and extreme-right electoral parties which would like to abolish anti-discrimination protections altogether" and that it "could have a damaging effect on global feminist and LGBT movements by reinforcing conservative ideas about gender and sexuality".[156] The Canadian Anti-Hate Network said that despite labelling themselves as feminists, TERF groups often collaborate with conservative and far-right groups.[18] Serena Bassi and Greta LaFleur note that "gender-critical movements often reemploy the well-known right-wing populist opposition between 'the corrupt global elites' and 'the people'", noting the similarity of gender-critical beliefs to "far-right conspiracy theorizing".[4]

Gender studies scholar C. Libby has pointed to "burgeoning connections between trans-exclusionary radical feminism, "gender critical" writing, and transphobic evangelical Christian rhetoric".[157]

In January 2019, The Heritage Foundation, an American conservative think tank, hosted a panel of self-described radical feminists opposed to the US Equality Act.[153] Heron Greenesmith of Political Research Associates, an American liberal think tank, has said that the latest iteration of collaboration between conservatives and anti-transgender feminists is in part a reaction to the trans community's "incredible gains" in civil rights and visibility, and that anti-trans feminists and conservatives capitalize on a "scarcity mindset rhetoric" whereby civil rights are portrayed as a limited commodity and must be prioritized to cisgender women over other groups. Greenesmith compared this rhetoric to the right-wing tactic of prioritizing the rights of citizens over non-citizens and white people over people of colour.[153] Bev Jackson, one of the founders of the LGB Alliance, has argued in contrast that "working with The Heritage Foundation is sometimes the only possible course of action" since "the leftwing silence on gender in the US is even worse than in the UK".[158]

In a 2020 article in Lambda Nordica, Erika Alm of the University of Gothenburg and Elisabeth L. Engebretsen of the University of Stavanger, said that there was "growing convergence, and sometimes conscious alliances, between "gender-critical" feminists (sometimes known as TERFs – Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminists), religious and social conservatives, as well as right-wing politics and even neo-Nazi and fascist movements" and that the convergence was linked to "their reliance on an essentialised and binary understanding of sex and/or gender, often termed 'bio-essentialism'".[19] Engebretsen has described the movement as a "complex threat to democracy".[159] Another 2020 article, in The Sociological Review, said that "the language of 'gender ideology' originates in anti-feminist and anti-trans discourses among right-wing Christians, with the Catholic Church acting as a major nucleating agent", and said that the term "saw increasing circulation in trans-exclusionary radical feminist discourse" from around 2016. It further said that "a growing number of anti-trans campaigners associated with radical feminist movements have openly aligned themselves with anti-feminist organisations".[5]

In a 2021 paper in Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, Hil Malatino of Pennsylvania State University said that "'gender-critical' feminism" in the US has "begun to build coalition with the evangelical Right around the legal codification of sex as a biological binary" and that "popular news media frames transphobia as part of a rational, enlightened, pragmatic response to what is variously called the 'trans lobby' and the 'cult of trans'".[160] Another 2021 paper, in Law and Social Inquiry, said that "a coalition of Christian conservative legal organizations, conservative foundations, Trump administration officials, Republican party lawmakers, and trans-exclusionary radical feminists has assembled to redefine the right to privacy in service of anti-transgender politics" and that "social conservatives have cast the issue as one of balancing two competing rights claims rather than one of outright animus against a gender minority population".[161]

Misinformation and disinformation

T.J. Billiard in article on "TERF strategies" has stated that "misinformation—or, more specifically, disinformation—about trans topics has become the defining feature of public discourse on transgender rights".[13] Cilia Williams et al. noted in an article on gender critical feminist discourse in Spain that "anti-trans narratives online [...] use attacks, misinformation, and self-defence as a communication strategy, rather than debate or dialogue".[14] Alyosxa Tudor has written that "strategic disinformation as [an] accelerator" has been used to push forward "hateful and anti-democratic agendas".[15]

Controversies

Academic freedom

Conflict between gender-critical feminists and other feminists and transgender rights activists has resulted in controversies in which the principles of academic freedom have been invoked. Conflicts have erupted at university campuses.[citation needed]

Kathleen Lowrey, who had allegedly been fired from her additional position as associate chair of undergraduate programs for the department of anthropology at the University of Alberta after displaying gender-critical posters on her office door, teaching gender-critical material in class, and showing up halfway through a student-run queer anthology event to start arguments about "the existence and validity of trans people with a trans man in the room",[162][163] published a paper in Archives of Sexual Behavior saying that she found it particularly distressing that "almost all of my most enthusiastic public attackers were feminist academic women" and that gender-critical feminists "root their analysis in the materiality of biological sex and take the oppression of women to be linked to the control of reproduction. In the present scholarly ecumene, this aligns them in some respects with scholars who are traditional and conservative, and explains why they, like conservatives, are so often in trouble with their institutions under present conditions".[164]

Carolyn Sale of the Center for Free Expression at Ryerson University condemned the university's decision, saying that "the idea that in a hush behind closed doors students can bring complaints that don't have to be proven true and can do so in order to protect their "safety" should alarm us all".[165]

In September 2022, Laura Favaro published an article in Times Higher Education discussing her research into the climate of the debate among academics. Noting that she had interviewed 50 feminist academics in gender studies with a range of views on the subject, Favaro stated "my discussions left me in no doubt that a culture of discrimination, silencing and fear has taken hold across universities in England, and many countries beyond".[166] Favaro later began discrimination proceedings against City, University of London, stating she had been "ostracised at her workplace and denied access to her research data" after the publication of her article.[167][168]

City, University of London responded with a statement that it had a "legal obligation to protect freedom of expression that we take very seriously". It also took its "obligations with respect to ethics and integrity very seriously" and made clear that "any personal data processed in the course of any research [should be] processed in compliance with data protection legislation".[168]

Conflicts with other feminist and pro-equality groups

In February 2020, 28 feminist and LGBT groups in France co-signed a declaration titled Toutes des femmes denouncing trans-exclusionary feminism, saying that "questions disguised as 'legitimate concerns' quickly give way to more violent attacks" and that "it is a confusionist and conspiratorial ideological movement using the cover of feminism to disrupt real feminist fights.[169] The declaration has since also been signed by over 100 additional feminist, LGBT, and progressive groups.[22] In May 2021, over 110 women's and human rights organisations in Canada signed a statement stating that they "vehemently reject the dangerous and bigoted rhetoric and ideology espoused by Trans Exclusionary Radical 'Feminists' (TERFs)", and saying that "trans people are a driving force in our feminist movements and make incredible contributions across all facets of our society".[21]

Judith Butler said in 2020 that trans-exclusionary radical feminism is "a fringe movement that is seeking to speak in the name of the mainstream, and that our responsibility is to refuse to let that happen".[170]

In 2021, the Council of Europe Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination published a report titled Combating rising hate against LGBTI people in Europe, which condemned "the highly prejudicial anti-gender, gender-critical and anti-trans narratives which reduce the fight for the equality of LGBTI people to what these movements deliberately mischaracterise as 'gender ideology' or 'LGBTI ideology'" and which said there was "a direct link between heteronormativity and heterosexism, on the one hand, and the growing anti-gender and gender-critical movements".[16] The report formed the basis of Resolution 2417, adopted in January 2022.[23]

In late-January 2018, over 1000 Irish feminists, including several groups such as the University College Dublin Centre of Gender, Feminisms & Sexualities, signed an open letter condemning a planned meeting in Ireland on UK Gender Recognition Act reforms organised by a British group opposing the reforms.[171] The letter stated that "[t]rans people and particularly trans women are an inextricable part of our feminist community" and accused the British group of colonialism.[172]

Sociologist Kelsy Burke argued that "TERFs aren't aligned with most feminists" and wrote that "most American feminists are far from trans-exclusionary and have long been among the most supportive groups of LGBTQ equality".[173]

Social media

The controversial Reddit community r/GenderCritical gathered a reputation as an anti-trans space. In June 2020, it was banned abruptly for violating new rules against "promoting hate". Members set up a similar community called Ovarit.[174]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Thurlow, Claire (2022). "From TERF to gender critical: A telling genealogy?". Sexualities. 27 (4): 962–978. doi:10.1177/13634607221107827. S2CID 252662057.
  2. ^ a b Williams, Cristan (2016). "Radical Inclusion: Recounting the Trans Inclusive History of Radical Feminism". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 3 (1–2): 254–258. doi:10.1215/23289252-3334463.
  3. ^ Rogers, Baker A. (2023). "TERFs aren't feminists: lesbians stand against trans exclusion". Journal of Lesbian Studies. 28 (1): 24–43. doi:10.1080/10894160.2023.2252286. PMID 37679960. S2CID 261608725. many lesbians despise TERF ideology
  4. ^ a b c d e f Bassi, Serena; LaFleur, Greta (2022). "Introduction: TERFs, Gender-Critical Movements, and Postfascist Feminisms". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 9 (3): 311–333. doi:10.1215/23289252-9836008. S2CID 253052875.
  5. ^ a b c d Pearce, Ruth; Erikainen, Sonja; Vincent, Ben (2020). "TERF wars: An introduction". The Sociological Review. 68 (4): 677–698. doi:10.1177/0038026120934713. hdl:2164/18988. S2CID 221097475. Archived from the original on 20 November 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  6. ^ UK Parliament. "Employment Tribunal rulings on gender-critical beliefs in the workplace". House of Commons Library. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2023.
  7. ^ a b Sullivan, Alice; Todd, Selina (10 July 2023), "Introduction", Sex and Gender (1 ed.), London: Routledge, pp. 1–15, doi:10.4324/9781003286608-1, ISBN 978-1-003-28660-8, retrieved 20 October 2023
  8. ^ a b Thomsen, Carly; Essig, Laurie (2021). "Lesbian, feminist, TERF: a queer attack on feminist studies". Journal of Lesbian Studies. 26 (1): 27–44. doi:10.1080/10894160.2021.1950270. PMID 34313195. S2CID 236452285.
  9. ^ a b Dickey, Briar (2023). "Transphobic Truth Markets: Comparing Trans-hostile Discourses in British Trans-exclusionary Radical Feminist and US Right-wing Movements". Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies. 10 (2): 34–47. doi:10.21825/digest.85311.
  10. ^ a b Hines, Sally (2020). "Sex wars and (trans) gender panics: Identity and body politics in contemporary UK feminism" (PDF). The Sociological Review. 68 (4): 699–717. doi:10.1177/0038026120934684. S2CID 221097483. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  11. ^ a b Bae, Sooyoun (1 February 2023). Discord Between Transgender Women and TERFs in South Korea (PDF). The Asian Conference on Education 2022: Official Conference Proceedings. The International Academic Forum. doi:10.22492/issn.2186-5892.2023.67. ISSN 2186-5892. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
  12. ^ a b Lee, Hyun-Jae (December 2020). "A Critical Study of Identity Politics Based on the Category 'Biological Woman' in the Digital Era: How Young Korean Women Became Transgender Exclusive Radical Feminists". Journal of Asian Sociology. 49 (4): 425–448. doi:10.21588/dns.2020.49.4.003. JSTOR 26979894.
  13. ^ a b Billard, Thomas J (3 April 2023). ""Gender-Critical" Discourse as Disinformation: Unpacking TERF Strategies of Political Communication". Women's Studies in Communication. 46 (2): 235–243. doi:10.1080/07491409.2023.2193545. ISSN 0749-1409. S2CID 258464300. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
  14. ^ a b Willem, Cilia; Platero, R. Lucas; Tortajada, Iolanda (2022). "Trans-exclusionary Discourses on Social Media in Spain". Identities and Intimacies on Social Media. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. pp. 185–200. doi:10.4324/9781003250982-15. ISBN 978-1-003-25098-2. OCLC 1334107848.
  15. ^ a b Tudor, Alyosxa (May 2023). "The anti-feminism of anti-trans feminism". European Journal of Women's Studies. 30 (2): 290–302. doi:10.1177/13505068231164217. ISSN 1350-5068.
  16. ^ a b Ben Chika, Fourat (21 September 2021), Combating rising hate against LGBTI people in Europe (Provisional version) (PDF), Council of Europe Committee on Equality and Non-Discrimination, archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2021, retrieved 8 December 2021
  17. ^ a b Butler, Judith. "Why is the idea of 'gender' provoking backlash the world over?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  18. ^ a b "'Rights aren't a competition': Anti-trans hate is on the rise in Canada, activists and advocates say". CTV News. Archived from the original on 29 November 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
  19. ^ a b Alm, Erika; Engebretsen, Elisabeth L. (15 June 2020). "Gender Self-identification". Lambda Nordica. 25 (1): 48–56. doi:10.34041/ln.v25.613. hdl:11250/3048285. S2CID 225712334.
  20. ^ a b Studnik, Joane (24 January 2023). "Was bedeutet TERF? Wie linke Transfeindlichkeit Rechtsextreme stärkt" [What does TERF mean? How left-wing transphobia strengthens the far right]. Der Freitag.
  21. ^ a b "Our Feminism is Trans Inclusive. | Action Canada for Sexual Health and Rights". Archived from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  22. ^ a b "Les signataires - Toutes des Femmes". 25 February 2020. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  23. ^ a b c "Resolution 2417 (2022): Combating rising hate against LGBTI people in Europe". Council of Europe. 25 January 2022. Archived from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  24. ^ a b "LGBTIQ+ communities and the anti-rights pushback: 5 things to know". UN Women. 28 May 2024. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
  25. ^ a b "UN Women says gender-critical activists are 'anti-rights movement'". The Times. Archived from the original on 16 June 2024. Retrieved 16 June 2024.
  26. ^ Smythe, Viv (28 November 2018). "I'm credited with having coined the word 'Terf'. Here's how it happened". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 January 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2019. Due to a short series of blogposts from 2008, I have retrospectively been credited as the coiner of the acronym "Terf" (Trans Exclusionary Radical Feminists) ... a shorthand to describe one cohort of feminists who self-identify as radical and are unwilling to recognise trans women as sisters, unlike those of us who do.
  27. ^ Stryker, Susan; Bettcher, Talia M. (1 May 2016). "Introduction". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 3 (1–2): 5–14. doi:10.1215/23289252-3334127.
  28. ^ Dastagir, Alia (16 March 2017). "A feminist glossary because we didn't all major in gender studies". USA Today. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019. TERF: The acronym for 'trans exclusionary radical feminists,' referring to feminists who are transphobic.
  29. ^ Bollinger, Alex (19 December 2018). "Famous lesbian site taken over by anti-trans 'feminists'. Now lesbian media is standing up". www.lgbtqnation.com. Archived from the original on 5 June 2019. Retrieved 5 June 2019.
  30. ^ a b c d e Burns, Katelyn (5 September 2019). "The rise of anti-trans "radical" feminists, explained". Vox. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2022. "I don't think American women are buying it", she said, pointing out that nearly every major US feminist advocacy group is vocally pro-trans rights and inclusion.
  31. ^ O'Connell, Jennifer (26 January 2019). "Transgender for beginners: Trans, terf, cis and safe spaces". The Irish Times. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
  32. ^ "TERF". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. June 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  33. ^ a b Zanghellini, Aleardo (April–June 2020). "Philosophical Problems With the Gender-Critical Feminist Argument Against Trans Inclusion". SAGE Open. 10 (2): 14. doi:10.1177/2158244020927029.
  34. ^ a b Grinspan, Mauro Cabral; Eloit, Ilana; Paternotte, David; Verloo, Mieke (2023). "Exploring TERFnesses". Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies. 10 (2). doi:10.21825/digest.90008.
  35. ^ "Woman as Resource: A Reply to Catharine MacKinnon - The Philosophers' Magazine". www.philosophersmag.com. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  36. ^ Kodsi, Daniel (3 July 2022). "Who is feminism for?". Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  37. ^ Brione, Patrick. "Employment Tribunal rulings on gender-critical beliefs in the workplace". Archived from the original on 10 July 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  38. ^ Elgot, Jessica (4 April 2023). "Kemi Badenoch could rewrite law to allow trans exclusion from single-sex spaces". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 August 2023.
  39. ^ Cowan, Sharon; Morris, Sean (2022). "Should 'Gender Critical' Views about Trans People Be Protected as Philosophical Beliefs in the Workplace? Lessons for the Future from Forstater, Mackereth and Higgs". Industrial Law Journal. 51 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1093/indlaw/dwac002. hdl:20.500.11820/283d153e-d5df-4e5c-89c5-04da82e6795d.
  40. ^ a b Stock, Kathleen (2021). "Chapter 2: What is sex?". Material Girls: Why Reality Matters for Feminism. Fleet. pp. 44–75. ISBN 9780349726595.
  41. ^ Lawford-Smith, Holly (2022). Gender-Critical Feminism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198863885.
  42. ^ "Sex Matters to intervene in Equality Act case at Inner House". Scottish Legal News. 3 October 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  43. ^ Searles, Michael (17 October 2023). "Government to tell GMC 'women are women' and 'biological sex matters'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  44. ^ Stock, Kathleen (2021). "Chapter 3: Why does sex matter?". Material Girls: Why Reality Matters for Feminism. Fleet. pp. 76–108. ISBN 9780349726595.
  45. ^ a b c Lawford-Smith, Holly (29 March 2021). "What Is Gender Critical Feminism (and why is everyone so mad about it)?". Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  46. ^ Lawford-Smith, Holly (2022). Gender-Critical Feminism. OUP. pp. 13, 166. ISBN 978-0-19-886388-5.
  47. ^ "Feminist Perspectives on Sex and Gender". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
  48. ^ Byrne, Alex (January 2020). "Are women adult human females?" (PDF). Philosophical Studies. 177 (12): 22. doi:10.1007/s11098-019-01408-8. hdl:1721.1/128358. S2CID 254943344. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
  49. ^ "Woman billboard removed after transphobia row". BBC News. 26 September 2018. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2023.
  50. ^ Duffy, Sandra (26 October 2021). "An International Human Rights Law Analysis of the WHRC Declaration". Archived from the original on 16 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
  51. ^ MacKinnon, Catharine A. (2023). "A Feminist Defense of Transgender Sex Equality Rights" (PDF). Yale Journal of Law and Feminism. 34.
  52. ^ Mackay, Finn (December 2015). "Radical Feminism". Theory, Culture & Society. 32 (7–8): 332–336. doi:10.1177/0263276415616682. S2CID 220719287.
  53. ^ Bettcher, Talia Mae (2016). "Intersexuality, transgender and transsexuality". In Disch, Lisa; Hawkesworth, Mary (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Feminist Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 407–427. ISBN 9780199328581.
  54. ^ Schmidt, Samantha (13 March 2017). "Women's issues are different from trans women's issues, feminist author says, sparking criticism". Washington Post. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  55. ^ a b "Germaine Greer Defends Her Controversial Views on Transgender Women". Time Magazine.
  56. ^ Elliot, Patricia (2004). "Who Gets to Be a Woman?: Feminist Politics and the Question of Trans-inclusion". Atlantis: Critical Studies in Gender, Culture & Social Justice. 29 (1): 16. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018. The first assumption is that one's socialization as a girl or woman defines "women's experience" as something shared. But this assumption downplays differences among women, as if the sociological norms one identifies as part of a patriarchal gender order are evenly applied to all in one cookie-cutter model, or as if girls and women have the same relationships to those norms. It also fails to ask about possible similarities of experience between trans and non-trans women (both of whom may have been disparaged for their femininity).
  57. ^ Dietert, Michelle; Dentice, Dianne (2012). "Growing up trans: Socialization and the gender binary". Journal of GLBT Family Studies. 9 (1): 24–42. doi:10.1080/1550428X.2013.746053. S2CID 143015502. When individuals deviate from gender binary arrangements by expressing gender norms and roles not associated with their biological assignment at birth, authorities submit control by utilizing gender binary discourse beginning in early socialization and lasting throughout the individual's life. During early socialization, we suggest that transgender individuals must negotiate their family and peer relationships relative to established, norm-driven gender binary discourse which oftentimes result in anxiety, fear of appraisals for not conforming to gender norms, and differential treatment from both family members and peers.
  58. ^ Serano, Julia (2 March 2022). "Why are AMAB trans people denied the closet?". Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2023.
  59. ^ Raymond, Janice. (1994). The Transsexual Empire, p. 104
  60. ^ "'Gender critical' author Helen Joyce says she wants to 'reduce' number of trans people: 'Chilling'". PinkNews.
  61. ^ "Feminist theologian Mary Daly dies". The Bay Area Reporter / B.A.R. Inc. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
  62. ^ a b c Daly, Mary (1981) [1978]. Gyn/Ecology: The Metaethics of Radical Feminism. London: The Women's Press.
  63. ^ Bindel, Julie (2 July 2005). "The ugly side of beauty". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2023.
  64. ^ Hayward, Eva S. (2017). "Don't Exist". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 4 (2): 191–194. doi:10.1215/23289252-3814985.
  65. ^ Alice D. Dreger; April M. Herndon. "Progress and Politics in the intersex rights movement, Feminist theory in action" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  66. ^ "Intersex Activism, Feminism and Psychology: Opening a Dialogue on Theory, Research and Clinical Practice | Request PDF".
  67. ^ a b "Changing the concept of "woman" will cause unintended harms". The Economist. 6 July 2018. Archived from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2019.
  68. ^ "Understanding How Anti-Transgender Legislation Also Affects Intersex Kids".
  69. ^ Chase, Cheryl (14 July 2022). "Hermaphrodites with Attitude: Mapping the Emergence of Intersex Political Activism". The Transgender Studies Reader Remix. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003206255-60. ISBN 9781003206255. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  70. ^ "Most state bans on gender-affirming care for trans youth still allow controversial intersex surgery". PBS NewsHour. 23 March 2023.
  71. ^ "US: Anti-Trans Bills Also Harm Intersex Children". 26 October 2022. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
  72. ^ a b Lamble, Sarah (23 May 2024). "Confronting complex alliances: Situating Britain's gender critical politics within the wider transnational anti-gender movement". Journal of Lesbian Studies. 28 (3): 504–517. doi:10.1080/10894160.2024.2356496. ISSN 1089-4160. PMID 38783535.
  73. ^ "JK Rowling under fire for following a 'proud transphobe' on Twitter". PinkNews. 25 June 2019. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  74. ^ "No, United Nations. 'Trans lesbians' are not lesbians". The Telegraph. 13 October 2023. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  75. ^ "Lesbians are being erased by transgender activists". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
  76. ^ "The lesbians who feel pressured to have sex and relationships with trans women". BBC. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  77. ^ "What everyone needs to know about TERFs". Cosmopolitan. 20 September 2019. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  78. ^ "'Pro-lesbian' or 'trans-exclusionary'? Old animosities boil into public view". NBC. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  79. ^ a b Serano, Julia (10 August 2020). "Autogynephilia: A scientific review, feminist analysis, and alternative 'embodiment fantasies' model". The Sociological Review. 68 (4): 763–778. doi:10.1177/0038026120934690. ISSN 0038-0261. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  80. ^ Stock, Kathleen (14 December 2021). "An exercise in talking shop". The Critic. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  81. ^ a b Zanghellini, Aleardo (2020). "Philosophical Problems With the Gender-Critical Feminist Argument Against Trans Inclusion". SAGE Open. 10 (2): 215824402092702. doi:10.1177/2158244020927029. ISSN 2158-2440.
  82. ^ Garton-Crosbie, Abbi (10 January 2024). "What will a 'conversion therapy' ban in Scotland look like and who opposes it?". The National. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  83. ^ Martin, Daniel (25 October 2023). "Telling children they can change sex is conversion therapy, say campaigners". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  84. ^ Perry, Sophie (6 December 2023). "Westminster conversion therapy debate descends into scare-mongering about 'transing away the gay'". Pink News. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  85. ^ Fassin, Éric (11 December 2023). "An Epidemic of Transphobia on French Turf". DiGeSt - Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies. 10 (2). doi:10.21825/digest.90002. ISSN 2593-0281. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
  86. ^ Gallagher, Sophie; Parry, Josh (31 March 2022). "Conversion therapy: Ban to go ahead but not cover trans people". BBC News. Retrieved 16 October 2024. Some gender critical groups had fought for the ban not to include conversion therapy experienced by transgender people.
  87. ^ "About Conversion Therapy". The Trevor Project. Retrieved 5 June 2024.
  88. ^ Ramon Mendos, Luca (2020). Curbing Deception: A world survey on legal regulation of so-called "conversion therapies" (PDF) (Report). International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association.
  89. ^ Greenesmith, Heron (17 June 2020). "Non-Affirming Therapists Endanger Trans Youth". Teen Vogue. Archived from the original on 22 August 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  90. ^ Lawson, Zazie; Davies, Skye; Harmon, Shae; Williams, Matthew; Billawa, Shradha; Holmes, Ryan; Huckridge, Jaymie; Kelly, Phillip; MacIntyre-Harrison, Jess; Neill, Stewart; Song-Chase, Angela; Ward, Hannah; Yates, Michael (October 2023). "A human rights based approach to transgender and gender expansive health". Clinical Psychology Forum. 1 (369): 91–106. doi:10.53841/bpscpf.2023.1.369.91. ISSN 1747-5732. S2CID 265086908. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2024.
  91. ^ Santoro, Helen (2 May 2023). "How Therapists Are Trying to Convince Children That They're Not Actually Trans". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Archived from the original on 21 January 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  92. ^ Stryker, Susan (2008). "Stray Thoughts on Transgender Feminism and the Barnard Conference on Women". The Communication Review. 11 (3): 217–218. doi:10.1080/10714420802306726. S2CID 145011138. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  93. ^ Bettcher, Talia (2014), "Feminist Perspectives on Trans Issues", in Zalta, Edward N. (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, archived from the original on 28 March 2019, retrieved 13 April 2019
  94. ^ Goldberg, Michelle (5 August 2014). "What Is a Woman? The dispute between radical feminism and transgenderism". New Yorker Magazine. Archived from the original on 13 November 2019. Retrieved 1 December 2019.
  95. ^ a b c d e f g h Williams, Cristan (2021). "TERFs". The SAGE encyclopedia of trans studies. London Los Angeles: SAGE Reference. pp. 822–825. ISBN 978-1-5443-9381-0.
  96. ^ a b c d e f Williams, Cristan (2020). "The ontological woman: A history of deauthentication, dehumanization, and violence". The Sociological Review. 68 (4): 718–734. doi:10.1177/0038026120938292. ISSN 0038-0261. S2CID 221097519.
  97. ^ Gan, Jessi (2007). ""Still at the back of the bus": Sylvia Rivera's struggle" (PDF). CENTRO Journal. 19 (1): 125–139. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  98. ^ a b Raymond, Janice G. (1994). The Transsexual Empire: The Making of the She-male (PDF) (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. ISBN 978-0807762721. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 November 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2019.
  99. ^ Raymond, Janice. (1994). The Transsexual Empire, p. 104, 178
  100. ^ Rose, Katrina C. (2004). "The Man Who Would be Janice Raymond". Transgender Tapestry. 104. Archived from the original on 29 March 2019.
  101. ^ Namaste, Viviane K. (2000). Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People. University of Chicago Press. pp. 33–34. ISBN 9780226568102.
  102. ^ Hayes, Cressida J. (2003). "Feminist Solidarity after Queer Theory: The Case of Transgender". Signs. 28 (4): 1093–1120. doi:10.1086/343132. JSTOR 10.1086/343132. S2CID 144107471.
  103. ^ a b Serano, Julia (2007). Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Da Capo Press. ISBN 9781580051545.
  104. ^ "Trouble in Utopia". The Village Voice. 12 September 2000. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 10 January 2009.
  105. ^ Solovey, Vanya Mark (30 May 2023). "Feminism and Aggressive Imperialism: Russian Feminist Politics in Wartime". Femina Politica – Zeitschrift für feministische Politikwissenschaft. 32 (1): 95–101. doi:10.3224/feminapolitica.v32i1.08. ISSN 2196-1646.
  106. ^ Kim, Ashley (8 September 2019). "Womad: The New Face of Feminism in Korea?". Berkeley Political Review. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2021.
  107. ^ "Sookmyung Women's University's first transgender student faces discriminations both on and off campus". The Hankyoreh. 3 February 2020. Archived from the original on 29 June 2024. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
  108. ^ Ahn, Sung-mi (7 February 2020). "Transgender student withdraws after getting accepted to Sookmyung Women's University". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
  109. ^ Kim, Jinsook (December 2021). "The Resurgence and Popularization of Feminism in South Korea: Key Issues and Challenges for Contemporary Feminist Activism". Korea Journal. 61 (4): 75–101. doi:10.25024/kj.2021.61.4.75.
  110. ^ Women and Equalities Committee (8 January 2016). Transgender Equality (Report). House of Commons. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 1 November 2021. Within the current Parliament, the Government must bring forward proposals to update the Gender Recognition Act, in line with the principles of gender self-declaration that have been developed in other jurisdictions. In place of the present medicalised, quasi-judicial application process, an administrative process must be developed, centred on the wishes of the individual applicant, rather than on intensive analysis by doctors and lawyers.
  111. ^ King, Daniel; Carrie Paechter; Maranda Ridgway (22 September 2020). "Reform of the Gender Recognition Act — Analysis of consultation responses". Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 8–9. CP 294. Archived from the original on 5 October 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
  112. ^ Gani, Aisha (16 February 2015). "Stonewall to start campaigning for trans equality". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
  113. ^ Hellen, Nicholas (22 September 2019). "'Anti-women' trans policy may split Stonewall". The Sunday Times. London. Archived from the original on 1 February 2021. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  114. ^ "MPs urged by anti-trans 'women's rights' group to eliminate 'transgenderism' and scrap Gender Recognition Act". Pink News. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 2 December 2021.
  115. ^ "Declaration on Women's Sex-Based Rights: Full Text - Women's Declaration International". Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  116. ^ Zanghellini, Aleardo (1 April 2020). "Philosophical Problems With the Gender-Critical Feminist Argument Against Trans Inclusion". SAGE Open. 10 (2): 2158244020927029. doi:10.1177/2158244020927029. S2CID 219733494.
  117. ^ "A so-called 'gender critical coming out day' for TERFs sparks blistering backlash". 12 November 2021. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  118. ^ "Graham Linehan calls for list of Irish 'gender critical' therapists for trans children". 5 February 2020. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  119. ^ "Graham Linehan, creator of 'The IT Crowd' and 'Father Ted,' has been removed from Twitter". 27 June 2020. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  120. ^ "J.K. Rowling explains her gender identity views in essay amid backlash". CNN. 10 June 2020. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  121. ^ Brooks, Libby (11 June 2020). "Why is JK Rowling speaking out now on sex and gender debate?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 9 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  122. ^ "Why feminists like me stand with JK Rowling in trans rights row – Susan Dalgety | The Scotsman". Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  123. ^ Ntim, Zac (13 June 2018). "Mumsnet brings in tougher forum rules after transgender row". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  124. ^ "Mumsnet moderators are struggling to find the line between free speech and transphobia". Wired UK. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  125. ^ a b "Anti-trans rhetoric is rife in the British media. Little is being done to extinguish the flames". CNN. 9 October 2021. Archived from the original on 11 March 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  126. ^ Levin, Sam; Chalabi, Mona; Siddiqui, Sabrina (2 November 2018). "Why we take issue with the Guardian's stance on trans rights in the UK". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.
  127. ^ McLean, Craig (2021). "The Growth of the Anti-Transgender Movement in the United Kingdom. The Silent Radicalization of the British Electorate" (PDF). International Journal of Sociology. 51 (6): 473–482. doi:10.1080/00207659.2021.1939946. S2CID 237874806. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 December 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  128. ^ Duffy, Nick (25 January 2022). "Council of Europe condemns 'virulent attacks on LGBT rights' in the UK, Hungary and Poland". i. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2022.
  129. ^ "Council of Europe compares UK to Russia and Poland over 'virulent attacks' on LGBT+ rights". PinkNews. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  130. ^ "Attorney General affirms sex-based rights". Woman's Place UK. 11 August 2022. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  131. ^ "Gender reassignment provisions in the Equality Act". Equality and Human Rights Commission. Archived from the original on 29 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
  132. ^ Allegretti, Aubrey (5 April 2023). "What would changing the Equality Act mean for trans people and single-sex spaces?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 17 August 2023.
  133. ^ "Clarifying the definition of 'sex' in the Equality Act | EHRC". www.equalityhumanrights.com. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
  134. ^ "Tories pledge to tackle 'confusion' over legal definition of sex". BBC News. 3 June 2024. Retrieved 7 July 2024.
  135. ^ Davidson, Gina (6 November 2019). "Women's rights declaration sparks accusations of discrimination". The Scotsman. Archived from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
  136. ^ Valcore, Jace; Fradella, Henry F.; Guadalupe-Diaz, Xavier; Ball, Matthew J.; Dwyer, Angela; Dejong, Christina; Walker, Allyn; Wodda, Aimee; Worthen, Meredith G. F. (2021). "Building an Intersectional and Trans-Inclusive Criminology: Responding to the Emergence of "Gender Critical" Perspectives in Feminist Criminology". Critical Criminology. 29 (4): 687–706. doi:10.1007/s10612-021-09590-0. S2CID 244192331. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  137. ^ "Researcher who lost job for tweeting 'men cannot change into women' loses employment tribunal". The Independent. 19 December 2019. Archived from the original on 22 April 2022. Retrieved 30 January 2021.
  138. ^ Gordon, Jane (23 April 2021). "'I am fighting for the right to say men can never be women'". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 February 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  139. ^ Cross, Michael. "Appeal backs woman over 'transphobic tweets' 10 June 2021". lawgazette. Law Society Gazette. Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
  140. ^ "Maya Forstater: Woman discriminated against over trans tweets, tribunal rules". BBC News. 6 July 2022. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  141. ^ "Judge throws out LGB Alliance founder's fight to ban trans women from women's spaces". PinkNews. 6 May 2021. Archived from the original on 25 November 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2021.
  142. ^ Siddique, Haroon (19 January 2024). "A politically toxic issue': the legal battles over gender-critical beliefs". theguardian.com. Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
  143. ^ Siddique, Haroon (22 January 2024). "Open University academic wins tribunal case over gender-critical views". theguardian.com. Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
  144. ^ Henderson, Cameron (2 August 2024). "Council admits discriminating against social worker over her gender-critical views". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2 August 2024. Retrieved 10 August 2024.
  145. ^ Moss, Rob (17 September 2024). "Judge urges council to mandate 'freedom of belief' training". personneltoday.com. Personnel Today. Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  146. ^ Gentleman, Amelia (15 August 2024). "Student psychotherapist wins apology over expulsion for gender-critical views". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 28 August 2024. Retrieved 19 August 2024.
  147. ^ "Litigation with James Esses". 15 August 2024. Archived from the original on 21 August 2024. Retrieved 21 September 2024.
  148. ^ Carrera-Fernández, María Victoria; DePalma, Renée (2020). "Feminism will be trans-inclusive or it will not be: Why do two cis-hetero woman educators support transfeminism?". The Sociological Review. 68 (4): 745–762. doi:10.1177/0038026120934686. S2CID 221097541.
  149. ^ Fradella, Henry F. (2023). "The Imperative of Rejecting 'Gender-Critical' Feminism in the Law". William & Mary Journal of Race, Gender, & Social Justice. 30 (2). doi:10.2139/ssrn.4419750. S2CID 258386262.
  150. ^ Hines, Sally (13 July 2018). "Trans and Feminist Rights Have Been Falsely Cast in Opposition". The Economist. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
  151. ^ Goldberg, Abbie E. (2024). The Sage Encyclopedia of LGBTQ+ Studies (2 ed.). SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781071891384.
  152. ^ House, Claire (2023). "'I'm Real, Not You': Roles and Discourses of Trans Exclusionary Women's and Feminist Movements in Anti-gender and Right-wing Populist Politics". Journal of Diversity and Gender Studies. 10 (2): 14–32. doi:10.21825/digest.85755. Archived from the original on 1 February 2024. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
  153. ^ a b c Fitzsimons, Tim (29 January 2019). "Conservative group hosts anti-transgender panel of feminists 'from the left'". NBC News. Archived from the original on 3 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  154. ^ Holden, Dominic (2 April 2019). "Republicans Are Trying To Kill An LGBT Bill In Congress By Arguing It Hurts Women". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  155. ^ "Judith Butler artfully dismantles trans-exclusionary feminism and JK Rowling. Hang this in the Louvre immediately". Pink News. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
  156. ^ "Feminism, biological fundamentalism and the attack on trans rights". Archived from the original on 7 December 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  157. ^ Libby, C (2022). "Sympathy, Fear, Hate: Trans-Exclusionary Radical Feminism and Evangelical Christianity". Transgender Studies Quarterly. 9 (3): 425–442. doi:10.1215/23289252-9836078. S2CID 253054962.
  158. ^ "LGB Alliance founder defends "feminists" working with Heritage Foundation". 21 August 2020. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  159. ^ Engebretsen, Elisabeth L. (2022). "Scientizing Gender? An Examination of Anti-Gender Campaigns on Social Media, Norway". In Eslen-Ziya, H.; Giorgi, A. (eds.). Populism and Science in Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 185–206. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-97535-7_9. ISBN 978-3-030-97534-0. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 28 June 2023.
  160. ^ Malatino, Hil (2021). "The Promise of Repair: Trans Rage and the Limits of Feminist Coalition". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 46 (4): 827–851. doi:10.1086/713292. S2CID 235304979. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021. Retrieved 7 December 2021.
  161. ^ Wuest, Joanna (2021). "A Conservative Right to Privacy: Legal, Ideological, and Coalitional Transformations in US Social Conservatism". Law & Social Inquiry. 46 (4): 964–992. doi:10.1017/lsi.2021.1. S2CID 234808832.
  162. ^ "Professor Lowrey dismayed over dismissal from admin role; others feel it is a positive step". 11 June 2020. Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  163. ^ "U of a professor says she was dismissed over views that biological sex trumps transgender identity for policy decisions". Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  164. ^ Lowrey, Kathleen (2021). "Trans Ideology and the New Ptolemaism in the Academy". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 50 (3): 757–760. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-01950-9. PMID 33660161. S2CID 232112514.
  165. ^ "Academic Freedom and Perceptions of Harm | Centre for Free Expression". Archived from the original on 8 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  166. ^ Favaro, Laura (15 September 2022). "Researchers are wounded in academia's gender wars". Times Higher Education (THE). Archived from the original on 16 September 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
  167. ^ Somerville, Ewan (15 April 2023). "University 'blocks' academic from her own gender wars research over 'dangerous' data". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Archived from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
  168. ^ a b "Laura Favaro: gender studies 'groupthink is forcing scholars out'". Times Higher Education (THE). 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2023.
  169. ^ "Le débat sur la place des femmes trans n'a pas lieu d'être". Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  170. ^ "Judith Butler on the culture wars, JK Rowling and living in "anti-intellectual times"". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 17 April 2022. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  171. ^ "Ireland Says No to TERFs". 24 January 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  172. ^ ""Stay away from Ireland," British anti-trans feminists told". 23 January 2018. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
  173. ^ Burke, Kelsy. "Feminists have long supported trans rights". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 March 2024.
  174. ^ "TERFs and The Donald: The Future of Reddit's Banned Groups - The Atlantic". The Atlantic. 28 April 2023. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2023.

Further reading