Arabian horse: Difference between revisions

Arabian horse

An Arabian stallion
Conservation status	Template:StatusDomesticated
Other names	Arabian, Arab
Country of origin	Middle East, including Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq
Traits
Distinguishing features	finely chisled bone structure, concave profile, arched neck, comparatively level croup, high-carried tail.
Breed standards
Arabian Horse Association (AHA) (United States) The Arabian Horse Society of Australia World Arabian Horse Organisation
Equus ferus caballus

The Arabian horse is a breed of horse with a reputation for intelligence, high spirit, and outstanding stamina. With a distinctive head shape and high tail carriage, the Arabian is one of the most easily recognizable horse breeds in the world.

Arabians are one of the oldest horse breeds. There is archaeological evidence of horses that resemble modern Arabians dating back 4,500 years. Throughout history, Arabian horses from the Middle East spread around the world by both war and trade, used to improve other breeds by adding speed, refinement, endurance, and good bone. Today, Arabian bloodlines are found in almost every modern breed of riding horse.^[1]

The Arabian developed in a desert climate and was prized by the nomadic Bedouin people, often being brought inside the family tent for shelter and protection.^[2] This close relationship with humans has created a horse breed that is good-natured, quick to learn, and willing to please. But the Arabian also developed the high spirit and alertness needed in a horse used for raiding and war. This combination of willingness and sensitivity requires modern Arabian horse owners to handle their horses with competence and respect.^[3]

"The Versatile Arabian" is a slogan of the breed. Arabians compete today in many fields of equestrian activity, making the breed one of the top ten most popular in the world. Arabian horses are now found worldwide, including the United States and Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, continental Europe, South America (especially Brazil), and its land of origin, the Middle East.

Arabian horses have refined, wedge-shaped heads, a broad forehead, large eyes, large nostrils, and small muzzles. Most display a distinctive concave or "dished" profile. Many Arabians also have a slight forehead bulge between their eyes, called the "jibbah" by the Bedouin, that adds additional sinus capacity, believed to have helped the Arabian horse in its native dry desert climate.^[4][5] Another breed characteristic is an arched neck with a large, well-set windpipe set on a fine, clean throatlatch. This structure of the poll and throatlatch was called the mitbah or mitbeh by the Bedouin, and in the best Arabians is long and somewhat straight, allowing flexibility in the bridle and room for the windpipe.^[5]

Other distinctive features are a relatively long, level croup and naturally high tail carriage. Well-bred Arabians have a deep, well-angled hip and well laid-back shoulder. Most have a compact body with a short back. Some, though not all, have 5 lumbar vertebrae instead of the usual 6, and 17 rather than 18 pairs of ribs.^[4] Thus, even a small Arabian can carry a heavy rider with ease. Arabians usually possess dense, strong bone, sound feet, and good hoof walls. They are especially noted for endurance.

The breed standard for Arabian horses, as stated by the United States Equestrian Federation, describes the Arabians as standing between 14.1 and 15.1 hands (140-155 cm) tall, "with the occasional individual over or under."^[6] Thus, all Arabians, regardless of height, are classified as "horses," even though 14.2 hands is the traditional cutoff height between a horse and a pony. Because many horse owners in Europe and the Americas prefer taller animals, the Arabian has been bred for increased height, and many Arabians today are between 15 and 16 hands (60-64 inches at the withers).

For centuries, Arabian horses lived in the desert in close association with humans.^[7] For shelter and protection from theft, prized war mares were sometimes kept in their owner's tent, close to children and everyday family life. ^[4] Only horses with a naturally good disposition were allowed to reproduce. The result is that Arabians today are one of the few breeds which the United States Equestrian Federation allows children to exhibit stallions in show ring classes limited to riders under 18.^[8]

On the other hand, the Arabian is also classified as a "hot-blooded" breed, a category that includes other refined, spirited horses bred for speed, such as the Thoroughbred and the Barb. Like other hot-bloods, Arabians' sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning and greater communication with their riders. However, their intelligence also allows them to learn bad habits as quickly as good ones. They can quickly lose trust in a poor rider and do not tolerate inept or abusive training practices.

The Arabian Horse Association recognizes purebred horses with the coat colors bay, gray, chestnut, black, and roan. Bay is the most common color, followed by gray, and then chestnut. Black is somewhat rare. As noted below, true roan may not actually exist in Arabians; rather, roaning in the Arab could simply be a manifestation of the sabino or rabicano genes.

All Arabians, no matter the coat color, have black skin, except under white markings. Black skin provided protection from the hot desert sun.

Although many Arabians appear "white," this is the natural action of the gray gene. Gray horses are born bay, black or chestnut, then get progressively lighter as they age, until their hair coat eventually turns pure white or becomes "flea-bitten" gray. Their skin is black and remains so throughout their life. Therefore, all "white" Arabians are actually grays. There is no such thing as a genetically "white" Arabian, although there have been an extremely small number of Arabians registered as "white" for other reasons.

Black Arabians are not common. There are assorted and contradictory myths about black horses alleged to come from the Bedouin. Some areas considered black Arabians to be a bad omen, in other areas they were a valued treasure. One scientific reason that black is not common is that the black gene is genetically suppressed by the more dominant Agouti gene that creates the black points of a bay horse. Some breeding farms now use DNA testing to increase the probability of producing black Arabians.

The Bedouin had other assorted beliefs about color. It is also said that a particular type of "flea-bitten" gray with localized aggregations of pigment, known as a "bloody-shouldered" horse, was prized as a superior animal, particularly if a mare. Yet another myth is that the first "bloody shouldered" horse was a mare who mourned her rider, killed in war, and forever kept the stains left from the blood of her long-lost companion.

Arabians are crossed with other breeds to produce half-Arabians with additional colors. Purebred Arabians never carry dilution genes such as the dun gene, nor the cream gene. Because they do not carry any dilution genes, purebred Arabians cannot be cremello, perlino, palomino or buckskin. Arabians also never carry the proposed "dominant white" (W) gene that produces a true white horse (with pink skin and blue or light-colored eyes).

Purebred Arabians today do not possess genes for most spotting patterns, such as pinto or Appaloosa, except for sabino, discussed below. Spotting or excess white was once thought by some to be a sign of "impure" blood, was disfavored by Arabian breeders, and believed by some to be a mark of impurity until DNA testing for verification of parentage became standard. For a time, horses with belly spots and other white markings deemed excessive could not even be registered, and even after the rule was softened, excess white was sometimes penalized in the show ring. Nonetheless, there is pictorial evidence from depictions of chariot horses in Ancient Egypt and some later artwork that suggests that some of these patterns may have existed in antiquity.^[4]

Thus, though the purebred Arabian produces a limited range of potential colors, there is also a positive result: because they never carry the white gene ("W") or the frame overo gene ("O"), they can never produce foals with lethal albino or lethal white syndrome. (Though a partbred could carry these genes if the non-Arabian parent was a carrier)

One spotting pattern, sabino, does exist in purebred Arabians. The sabino gene (or gene-complex), produces white markings such as "high white" on the legs (above the knees and hocks), irregular spotting on the legs, belly and face, white markings that extend beyond the eyes or under the chin and jaw, and occasionally, roaning.^[9] While, many Arabians meet the definition of having minimal to moderately expressed sabino characteristics,^[10] Sabino Arabians, particularly those that appear to be nearly white, are controversial.

Today, some researchers call "Sabino-white" horses - those that are over 90% white (with pink skin) - "maximum" sabinos.^[11] "Sabino-white" is exceedingly uncommon, possibly exhibited by as few as eleven Arabians worldwide.^[12][13] Some groups consider a "Maximum" Sabino to be a horse that is over 50% white.^[10] In either case, studies at the University of California, Davis indicate that the gene (or genes) which produces sabino in Arabians does not appear to be the autosomal dominant gene "SB1" or "Sabino1," that often produces completely white horses in other breeds. To date Arabians do not appear to carry it.^[14]

Another unusual color pattern seen on rare occasions in Arabians is rabicano. This is a partial roaning pattern, often slight, usually limited to the belly, flanks, legs, tailhead, or any combination of these areas. Some geneticists suggest that all roaning in purebred Arabians is actually the action of the rabicano or sabino genes. There is scientific debate over whether roan Arabians actually exist. Unlike a true roan, a rabicano horse's body does not have intermingled white and solid hairs over the entire body, nor are the legs or head significantly darker. Another area of confusion is that some people confuse a young grey horse with a roan because of the intermixed hair colors common to both. However, a roan does not change color with age, while a gray does. There are very few Arabians registered as "roan," and fewer, if any, have been DNA tested for the roan gene.

Because of the genetic strength of the desert-bred Arabian horse, Arabian bloodlines have played a part in the development of nearly every modern light horse breed, including the Thoroughbred, American Quarter Horse, Morgan, American Saddlebred, Appaloosa and Warmblood breeds such as the Oldenburg and the Trakehner. Arabian bloodlines have also influenced the development of the Welsh Pony, the Marwari and the Percheron draft horse.

Today, people cross Arabians with other breeds to add refinement, endurance and soundness. In the USA, Half-Arabians have their own registry within the Arabian Horse Association, which includes a special section for Anglo-Arabians, an Arabian-Thoroughbred cross. Some crosses originally registered only as Half-Arabians became popular enough to have their own breed registry, including the National Show Horse, an Arabian-Saddlebred cross; the Quarab (Arabian-Quarter Horse); the Welara (Arabian-Welsh Pony); and the Morab (Arabian-Morgan). In addition, some Arabians and Half Arabians have been approved for registration by some Warmblood registries, particularly the Trakehner registry.

Arabian horses are the topic of many romantic legends. The most popular are those told about their origins.

One creation myth tells how Muhammad chose his foundation mares by a test of their courage and loyalty. It is said that after a long journey through the desert, Muhammad turned his herd of horses loose to race to an oasis for a desperately-needed drink of water. Before the herd reached the water, he blew his war horn, summoning the animals to return to him. Only five mares responded. Because they faithfully returned to their master, even though desperate with thirst, these mares became his favorites and were called Al Khamsa, meaning, the five. These mares thus became the legendary founders of the five choice "strains" of the Arabian horse.^[15] Although the Al Khamsa are probably fictional horses of legend,^[5] some breeders today claim the modern Bedouin Arabian actually descended from these mares.

Another tale claims that King Solomon of Ancient Israel was said to have been given a pure Arabian-type mare named Safanad ("the pure") by the Queen of Sheba.^[5] Another version says that Solomon gave his renowned stallion, Zad el-Raheb or Zad-el-Rakib ("Gift to the Rider") to the Banu Azd people when they came to pay tribute to the king. This legendary stallion was said to be faster than the zebra and the gazelle, and every hunt with him was successful, thus the Arabs put him to stud and he became a founding sire of legend.^[5][16]

Yet another creation myth puts the origin of the Arabian in the time of Ishmael, the son of Abraham. In this story, the Angel Jibril (also known as Gabriel) descended from Heaven and awakened Ishmael with a "wind-spout" that whirled toward him. The Angel then commanded the thundercloud to stop scattering dust and rain, and so it gathered itself into a prancing, handsome creature--a horse--that seemed to swallow up the ground. Hence, the Bedouins bestowed the title "Drinker of the Wind" to the first Arabian horse, a stallion named Kuhaylah.^[17]

Another Bedouin story states that Allah created the Arabian horse from the four winds; spirit from the North, strength from the South, speed from the East, and intelligence from the West. (Other versions of this myth claim Allah used only the south wind) While doing so, he exclaimed, "I create thee, Oh Arabian. To thy forelock, I bind Victory in battle. On thy back, I set a rich spoil and a Treasure in thy loins. I establish thee as one of the Glories of the Earth... I give thee flight without wings."^[18] Other versions of the story claim Allah said: "I call you Horse; I make you Arabian and I give you the chestnut color of the ant; I have hung happiness from the forelock which hangs between your eyes; you shall be the Lord of the other animals. Men shall follow you wherever you go; you shall be as good for flight as for pursuit; riches shall be on your back and fortune shall come through your meditation."^{[citation needed]}

Arabians are one of the oldest human-developed breeds in the world. The original wild progenitors, the Oriental subtype or "Proto-Arabian" was a horse with oriental characteristics similar to the modern Arabian. These horses appeared in rock paintings and inscriptions in the Arabian Peninsula as far back as 2,500 B.C.^[19] In ancient history, throughout the Ancient Near East, horses with refined heads and high-carried tails were depicted in artwork, particularly that of Ancient Egypt. Proto-Arabians may have been brought to Egypt by the Hyksos invaders.^[4]

There are different theories about where the wild ancestor of the Arabian originally lived. Most evidence suggests the "proto Arabian" or "Oriental" horse came from the area along the northern edge of the Fertile Crescent. ^[20] Others argue for the southwestern corner of the Arabian peninsula, in modern-day Yemen, where three now-dry riverbeds suggest good natural pastures existed long ago, though perhaps as far back as the Ice Age.^[4][1][21]

Some scholars of the Arabian horse theorized that the Arabian came from a separate subspecies of horse, called Equus agilus.^[4] However, Gladys Brown Edwards, a noted Arabian researcher, as well as other scholars, believe that the "dry" oriental horse of the desert, from which the modern Arabian developed, was more likely one of the four foundation subtypes of Equus caballus that had specific characteristics based on the environments in which they lived, rather than being a separate subspecies.^[22][20][4] Horses with similar, though not identical, physical characteristics include the now-extinct Turkoman Horse, the Barb of North Africa and the Akhal-Teke of western Asia.

The Arabian horse prototype may have been domesticated by the people of the Arabian peninsula known today as the Bedouin, sometime after they learned to use the camel, approximately 4,000-5,000 years ago.^[22][1][23] However, other scholars, noting that horses were common in the Fertile Crescent but rare in the Arabian peninsula prior to the rise of Islam, theorize that the breed as it is known today only developed in large numbers when the conversion of the Persians to Islam in the 6th century A.D. brought knowledge of horse breeding and horsemanship to the Bedouin.^[24]

Regardless of origins, climate and culture ultimately created the Arabian. The desert environment required a domesticated horse to cooperate with humans to survive. Humans were the only providers of food and water in certain areas, and even hardy Arabian horses needed far more water than camels in order to survive (most horses can only live about 72 hours without water). Where there was no pasture or water, the Bedouin fed their horses dates and camel's milk.^[4] The desert horse needed to thrive on very little food, and possess anatomical traits to compensate for life in a dry climate with wide temperature extremes from day to night. Weak individuals were weeded out of the breeding pool, and the animals that remained were honed by centuries of human warfare.

In return, the Bedouin way of life depended on camels and horses: Arabians were bred to be war horses with speed, endurance, soundness, and intelligence. Because many raids required stealth, mares were preferred over stallions because they were quieter and would not give away the position of the fighters. A good disposition was critical; prized war mares were often brought inside family tents to prevent theft and for protection from weather and predators. Though appearance was not necessarily a survival factor, the Bedouin bred for refinement and beauty in their horses as well as for more practical features.

For centuries, the Bedouin tracked the ancestry of each horse through an oral tradition. The first written pedigrees in the middle east that specifically used the term "Arabian" date to 1330 A.D.^[25] Horses of the purest blood were known as Asil and crossbreeding with non-Asil horses was forbidden. Mares were the most valued, both for riding and breeding, and pedigree families were traced through the female line. The Bedouin did not believe in gelding male horses, and considered stallions too intractable to be good war horses, thus they kept very few male foals (colts), selling most, and culling those of poor quality.

Over time, the Bedouin developed several sub-types or strains of Arabian horse, each with unique characteristics. According to the Arabian Horse Association, the five primary strains were known as the Keheilan, Seglawi, Abeyan, Hamdani and Hadban. ^[26] There were also lesser strains, sub-strains, and regional variations in strain names. Thus, many Arabian horses were not only Asil, of pure blood, but also bred to be pure in strain as well, with crossbreeding between strains discouraged, though not forbidden, by some tribes. Purity of bloodline was very important to the Bedouin, and they also believed in telegony, believing if a mare was ever bred to a stallion of "impure" blood, the mare herself and all future offspring would be "contaminated" by the stallion and hence no longer Asil.^[4]

This complex web of bloodline and strain was an integral part of Bedouin culture. The Bedouin knew the pedigrees and history of their best war mares in detail, via an oral tradition that also tracked the breeding of their camels, Saluki dogs, and their own family or tribal history.^[27] Eventually, written records began to be kept; the first written pedigrees in the middle east that specifically used the term "Arabian" date to 1330 A.D.^[25]

Important as strain was to the Bedouin, studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that modern Arabian horses recorded to be of a given strain may not necessarily share a common maternal ancestry. ^[28]

Fiery war horses with dished faces and high-carried tails were popular artistic subjects in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, often depicted pulling chariots in war or for hunting. Horses with oriental characteristics appear in artwork as far north as that of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. While the horse wasn't called an "Arabian" in the Ancient Near East until later, (the word "Arabia" itself only first appeared in writings by the ancient Persians, circa 500 B.C.,^[4]) these "proto-Arabian" or "Oriental" horses shared many characteristics with the modern Arabian, including speed, endurance, and refinement. For example, a horse skeleton unearthed in the Sinai peninsula, dated to 1700 B.C., is considered the earliest physical evidence of the horse in Ancient Egypt. It was probably brought by the Hyksos invaders. This horse had a wedge-shaped head, large eye socket and small muzzle, all characteristics of the Arabian horse.^[5]

Following the Hijra in A.D. 622 (also sometimes spelled Hegira), the Arabian horse spread across the known world of the time, became recognized as a distinct, named breed, and played a significant role in the History of the Middle East and of Islam.^[20] By A.D. 630, Muslim influence expanded across the Middle East and North Africa. By A.D. 711, Muslim warriors had reached Spain, and controlled most of the Iberian peninsula by 720. Their mounts were of various oriental types, including both Arabians and the Barb horse of North Africa.

Muslim invaders reached as far north as France, where they were stopped by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. Arabians and other oriental breeds captured in the wake of this defeat were crossed with local horses, adding agility to the heavier animals, influencing the development of the Percheron.^[29]

Muslim invasions were not the only way Arabians reached Europe. During the Crusades, beginning in 1095, European armies invaded Palestine and many knights returned home with Arabian horses as spoils of war. As development of the longbow and gunpowder made knights and the heavy, armored war horses who carried them obsolete, these Arabians and their descendants were used to develop faster, agile light cavalry horses that were used in warfare into the 20th century.

Another way Arabian horses spread to the rest of the world was through the Ottoman Empire, which rose in 1299, and came to control much of the Middle East. Though it never fully dominated the heart of the Arabian Peninsula, this Turkish empire obtained many Arabian horses through trade, diplomacy and war. Ottoman nobility, such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt also collected pure, desert-bred Arabian horses. These horses often were sold, traded, or given as diplomatic gifts to Europeans and, later, to Americans.

One major infusion of Arabian horses into Europe occurred when the Ottoman Turks sent 300,000 horsemen into Hungary in A.D. 1522. Many Turks were mounted on pure-blooded Arabians, captured during raids into Arabia. By 1529, the Ottomans reached Vienna, where they were stopped by the Polish and Hungarian armies, who captured Arabians from the defeated Ottoman cavalry. Some of these horses provided foundation stock for the major studs of eastern Europe.^[30]

With the rise of light cavalry, the stamina and agility of horses with Arabian blood gave an enormous military advantage to any army who possessed them. Thus, many European monarchs began to support large breeding establishments that crossed Arabians on local stock. One example was the Imperial Russian Stud of Peter the Great, and another was Knyszyna, the royal stud of Polish king Zygmunt II August.^[30]

European horse breeders also obtained Arabian stock directly from the desert or via trade with the Ottomans. For example, Count Alexey Orlov of Russia obtained many Arabians, including Smetanka, an Arabian stallion who was a foundation sire of the Orlov trotter.^[31] Orlov provided Arabian horses to Catherine the Great, who in 1772 owned 12 pure Arabian stallions and 10 mares. Eventually, to meet the need to breed purebred Arabians as a source of pure bloodstock, the renowned stud farm that came to be known as the Tersk Stud of Russia was established in 1889.^[31]

Notable imports from Arabia to Poland included those of Prince Hieronymous Sanguszko (1743-1812) of Poland, who founded the Slawuta stud. Poland's first state-run Arabian stud farm, Janow Podlaski, was established by the decree of Alexander I of Russia in 1817.^[32]By 1850, the great stud farms of Poland were well-established, including Antoniny, owned by the Polish Count Potocki (who had married into the Sanguszko family); later notable as the farm that produced the stallion Skowronek.

The 18th century marked the establishment of most of the great Arabian studs of Europe, dedicated to preserving "pure" Arabian bloodstock. One example was the Babolna Stud of Hungary, set up in 1789, and the Weil stud in Germany (now known as Weil-Marbach), founded in 1817 by King Wilhelm I of Wurttemberg.^[33] Arabians were also introduced into European racehorse breeding, especially in England via the Darley Arabian, Byerly Turk, and Godolphin Arabian, the three foundation stallions of the modern Thoroughbred breed, who were each brought to England in the 1700s. Other monarchs obtained Arabian horses, often as personal mounts. One of the most famous Arabian stallions in Europe was Marengo, the war horse ridden by Napoleon Bonaparte.

During the mid-1800s, the need for Arabian blood to improve the breeding stock for light cavalry horses in Europe resulted in more excursions to the Middle East. Queen Isabel II of Spain sent representatives of the crown to the desert to purchase Arabian horses and by 1847 had established a stud book. Her successor, King Alfonso XII imported additional bloodstock from other European nations. By 1893, the state military stud farm, Yeguada Militar was established in Cordoba, Spain for breeeding both Arabian and Iberian horses. The military remained heavily involved in the importation and breeding of Arabians in Spain well into the early 20th century, and the Yeguada Militar is still in existence today.^[34]

This period also marked a period of considerable travel to the Middle East by European civilians and minor nobility, and in the process, some travelers noticed that the Arabian horse as a pure breed of horse was under threat due to modern forms of warfare, crossbreeding and other problems that were reducing the horse population of the Bedouin tribes at a rapid rate.^[4] By the late 1800s, the most farsighted began in earnest to collect the finest Arabian horses they could find in order to preserve the blood of the pure desert horse for future generations. The most famous example was Lady Anne Blunt, the daughter of Ada Lovelace and granddaughter of Lord Byron.^[35]

Perhaps the most famous of all Arabian breeding operations founded in Europe was the Crabbet Park Stud of England, founded 1878.^[36]

Starting in 1877, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Lady Anne Blunt made repeated journeys to the Middle East, including visits to the stud of Ali Pasha Sherif in Egypt and to Bedouin tribes in the Nejd, bringing the best Arabians they could find to England. Lady Anne also purchased and maintained the Sheykh Obeyd stud farm in Egypt, near Cairo. Upon Lady Anne's death in 1917, the Blunts' daughter, Judith, Lady Wentworth, inherited the Wentworth title and Lady Anne's portion of the estate. She obtained the remainder of the Crabbet Stud following a protracted legal battle with her father, Wilfrid.^[35] Lady Wentworth expanded the stud, added new bloodstock, and exported Arabian horses worldwide. Upon Lady Wentworth's death in 1957, the stud passed to her manager, Cecil Covey, who ran Crabbet until 1971, when a freeway was cut through the property, forcing the sale of the land and dispersal of the horses.^[37][4]

Historically, Egypt was known for importing horses bred in the deserts of Palestine and the Arabian peninsula rather than as a source of native bloodstock.^[35] However, the Egyptians had been doing so for millennia, dating at least as far back as the refined, high-tailed, dish-faced chariot horses of the Hyksos invaders.^[4] By the time that the Ottoman Empire dominated Egypt, the political elites of the region still recognized the need for quality bloodstock for both war and for horse racing, and some continued to return to the deserts to obtain pure-blooded Arabians. One of the most famous was Muhammad Ali of Egypt, also known as Muhammad Ali Pasha, who established an extensive stud farm in the 19th Century.^[4] After his death, some of his stock was bred on by Abbas I of Egypt, also known as Abbas Pasha. When Abbas Pasha was assassinated in 1854, his heirs sold most of his horses, often for crossbreeding, and gave away many others as diplomatic gifts.^[35] A remnant was obtained by Ali Pasha Sherif, who then went back to the desert to bring in new bloodstock. At its peak, the stud of Ali Pasha Sherif had over 400 purebred Arabians.^[38] Unfortunately, an epidemic of African horse sickness in the 1870s killed thousands of horses and decimated much of his herd, wiping out several irreplacable bloodlines.^[35] Late in his life, he sold several horses to Wilfred and Lady Anne Blunt, who exported them to Crabbet Park Stud in England. After his death, Lady Anne was able to gather many remaining horses at her Sheykh Obeyd stud.^[35]

Meanwhile, the passion brought by the Blunts to saving the pure horse of the desert helped Egyptian horse breeders convince their government of the need to preserve the best of their own remaining pure Arabian bloodstock that descended from the horses collected over the past century by Muhammad Ali Pasha, Abbas Pasha and Ali Pasha Sherif. Therefore, the government of Egypt formed the Royal Agricultural Society (RAS) in 1908. Today, the RAS is known as the Egyptian Agricultural Organization (EAO).^[39]

To rebuild some bloodlines that had been lost, RAS representatives traveled to England during the 1920s and purchased eighteen pure-blooded descendants of the original Blunt exports from Lady Wentworth at Crabbet Park and returned these bloodlines to Egypt.^[35] Other than several horses purchased by Henry Babson for importation to the United States in the 1930s, and one other small group exported to the USA in 1947, relatively few Egyptian-bred Arabian horses were exported until the overthrow of King Farouk I in 1952. After that, as oil development brought more foreign investors to Egypt, some of whom were horse fanciers, Arabians were exported to Germany and the United States, as well as to the former Soviet Union, then an ally of Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Following the death of Nasser in 1970 and the rise of a less Soviet-oriented government, even more Egyptian-bred Arabians were exported. Today, the designation "Straight Egyptian" or "Egyptian Arabian" is popular with some Arabian breeders, and the distinct "dry" look of the modern Egyptian-bred Arabian is an outcross used to add refinement in some breeding programs.

In the early 20th century, the military was involved in the breeding of Arabian horses throughout Europe, particularly in Poland, Spain, Germany, and Russia. In addition, private breeders developed a number of breeding programs. Significant among the private breeders in continental Europe was Cristobal Colon de Aguilera, XV Duque de Veragua, a direct descendant of Christopher Columbus, who founded the Veragua Stud in the 1920s.^[34]

Following the end of World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the historic European stud farms that survived the war re-established their breeding operations and added to their studs with new imports of desert-bred Arabian horses from the Middle East. Notable among the survivors was the Janow Podlaski Stud of Poland and the Tersk Stud of the then-Soviet Union. However, not all European studs thrived. The Weil stud of Germany, founded by King Wilhelm I went into considerable decline and by the time the Weil herd was transferred to the Marbach State Stud in 1932, only 17 purebred Arabians remained.^[40]

The Spanish Civil War and World War II had a devastating impact on horse breeding throughout Europe. The Veragua stud was destroyed, though studs such as Crabbet Park, Tersk, and Janow Podlaski survived. Both the Soviet Union and the United States obtained valuable Arabian bloodlines as spoils of war, which they used to strengthen their breeding programs; the Soviets at Tersk, and the Americans at Kellogg U.S. Army Remount station, the former W.K. Kellogg Ranch in California.^[5]

In the postwar era, nations such as Poland, Spain, The Netherlands, Sweden and Germany developed or re-established many well-respected Arabian stud farms. The studs of Poland in particular were decimated by both the Nazis and the Soviets, but were able to reclaim some of their breeding stock and became particularly world-renowned for their quality Arabian horses, tested rigorously by racing and other performance standards.

While only a few Arabians were exported from behind the Iron Curtain during the Cold War, those who did come to the west caught the eye of breeders worldwide. Improving relations between eastern Europe and the west led to major imports of Polish and Russian-bred Arabian horses to western Europe and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s. The collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1989, greater political stability in Egypt, and the rise of the European Union all increased international trade in Arabian horses. Organizations such as the World Arabian Horse Association (WAHO) created consistent standards for transferring the registration of Arabian horses between different nations. Today, Arabian horses are traded all over the world.^[41]

The first horses on the American mainland since the end of the Ice Age arrived with the Spanish Conquistadors. Hernán Cortés brought 16 horses of assorted Andalusian, Barb, and Arabian ancestry with him to Mexico in 1519. Others followed, such as Francisco Vásquez de Coronado, who brought 250 horses of similar breeding to America in 1540. ^[42] More horses followed with each new arrival of Conquistadors, missionaries, and settlers. Many horses escaped or were stolen, becoming the foundation stock of the American Mustang.

American colonists from England also brought horses of Arabian breeding to the eastern seaboard. One example was Nathaniel Harrison, who imported a horse of Arabian, Barb and Turkish ancestry to America in 1747.^[42]

George Washington used two horses as his primary mounts during the Revolutionary War. One was a gray half-Arabian horse named "Blueskin." The horse was sired by the stallion "Ranger," also known as "Lindsay's Arabian," said to have been obtained from the Sultan of Morocco.^[43][44] Other Presidents are linked to ownership of Arabian horses. In 1840, President Martin Van Buren received two Arabians from the Sultan of Oman,^[42] and in 1877, President Ulysses S. Grant obtained two Arabian stallions, Leopard and Linden Tree, as diplomatic gifts from the "Sultan of Turkey."^[45] Both of these stallions appear today in the pedigrees of Appaloosa horses.^[46]

A. Keene Richard was the first American known to have specifically bred Arabian horses. He traveled to the desert in 1853 and 1856 to obtain breeding stock, which he used both to cross on thoroughbreds and to breed purebred Arabians. Unfortunately, his horses were lost during the Civil War and have no known purebred Arabian descendants today. ^[4]

Leopard is the only stallion among the early imports who left known purebred descendants in America. ^[47] This was because Randolph Huntington imported the desert-bred Arabian mare *Naomi in 1888, and bred her to Leopard, producing Leopard's only purebred Arabian son, Anazeh. Anazeh then sired eight purebred Arabian foals, four of whom still appear in pedigrees today.^[47][4] Leopard is also a foundation sire of the Colorado Ranger Horse.^[48]

In 1893, the Hamidie Society exhibited 45 Arabian horses at the World Fair in Chicago, some of whom remained in the United States and caught the interest of some American breeders, who traveled abroad to obtain more.^[45] As a result, by 1908, the Arabian Horse Registry of America was established, recording 71 animals.^[45] By 1994, the number had reached half a million. There are now more Arabians registered in North America than in the rest of the world put together.^[49]

Major Arabian importations to the United States in the 20th century were made by breeders such as Homer Davenport and Peter Hingham of the Hingham Stock Farm, who purchased several stallions and mares directly from the desert Bedouin in 1906.^[50] Davenport was not alone; Spencer Borden of the Interlachen Stud, made several importations between 1898 and 1911;^[45] and W.R. Brown of the Maynesboro Stud, who had a particular interest in the Arabian as a cavalry mount, imported many Arabians over a period of years, starting in 1918.^[51][45] Another wave of imports came in the 1920s and 30s when breeders such as W.K. Kellogg, Henry Babson, Roger Selby, James Draper, and others imported Arabian bloodstock from Crabbet Park Stud in England, as well as from Poland, Spain and Egypt.^[45] Several Arabians, mostly of Polish breeding, were captured from Nazi Germany and imported to the U.S.A. following World War II.^[4] As the tensions of the Cold War eased, more Arabians were imported to America from Poland and Egypt. In the late 1970s, as political issues surrounding import regulations and the recognition of stud books were resolved, Arabian horses were also imported in greater numbers from Spain and Russia.^[27]

By the 1980s, popularity of the Arabian horse had risen to unsustainable heights. Arabians became a popular status symbol for celebrities and other wealthy people, many of whom were inexperienced with horses and considered them "living art." Prices skyrocketed, especially in the United States, with a record-setting public auction price for a mare named NH Love Potion, who sold for $2.55 million in 1984, and the largest syndication in history for an Arabian stallion, *Padron, at $11,000,000.^[52] The potential for profit led to over-breeding of the Arabian. When the Tax Reform Act of 1986 closed the tax-sheltering "passive investment" loophole, limiting the use of horse farms as tax shelters,^[53][54] the Arabian market was particularly vulnerable due to over-saturation and artificially inflated prices, and thus it collapsed, forcing many breeders into bankruptcy and sending many purebred Arabians to slaughter.^[55][53] Prices recovered slowly, with many breeders moving away from producing "living art" and towards a horse more suitable for amateur owners in many different riding disciplines. Today, the vast majority of Arabian horses in America are owned for recreational riding purposes.^[56]

Arabian horses were introduced to Australia in the earliest days of European Settlement. Early horse imports included both purebred Arabians as well as light Spanish “jennets” from Andalusia. Many Arabians also came from India. Based on records describing stallions "of Arabic and Persian blood," the first Arabian horses were probably imported to Australia in several groups between 1788 and 1802. ^[5] In 1803, a merchant named Robert Campbell imported an Arabian from India and in 1804 two additional Arabians, also from India, arrived in Tasmania one of whom, White William, sired the first purebred Arabian foal born in Australia, a stallion named Derwent.^[5]

Purebred Arabians were used to improve racehorses and some of them became quite famous as such. About 100 Arabian sires are included in the Australian Stud Book (for Thoroughbred Racehorses). ^{[citation needed]} They were part of the foundation of several breeds considered uniquely Australian, including the Australian Pony, the Waler and the Australian Stock Horse.^[57]

Throughout the 19th century, many more Arabians came to Australia, though most were used to produce crossbred horses and left no recorded purebred descendants. The first significant imports to be permanently recorded with offspring still appearing in modern purebred pedigrees were those of James Boucaut, who in 1888 imported several Arabians from the Blunt's Crabbet Arabian Stud in England.^[5]

In the early 20th century, more Arabian horses, mostly of Crabbet bloodlines, arrived in Australia. The first Arabians of Polish breeding arrived in 1966, and Egyptian lines were first imported in 1970. Arabian horses from the rest of the world followed, and today the Australian Arabian horse registry is the second largest in the world, next to that of the United States.^[5][58]

Arabian horses today are found all over the world. They are no longer classified by Bedouin strain, but are informally classified by the nation of origin of famed horses in a given pedigree. Popular types of Arabians are labeled "Polish," "Spanish," "Crabbet," "Russian," "Egyptian", and "Domestic" (describing horses whose ancestors were imported to the United States prior to 1944, including those from programs such as Kellogg, Davenport, Maynesboro, Babson, Dickenson and Selby). In the USA, a specific mixture of Crabbet, Maynesboro and Kellogg bloodlines has acquired the copyrighted designation "CMK."

Each set of bloodlines has its own devoted followers, with the virtues of each hotly debated. Most debates are between those who value the Arabian most for its refined beauty and those who value the horse for its stamina and athleticism. There are also various controversies over the relative "purity" of certain bloodlines. (See "Controversies" section, below)

Arabians are versatile horses that compete in many equestrian fields, including Horse racing, the horse show disciplines of Saddle Seat, Western Pleasure, and Hunt seat, as well as Dressage, Cutting, Reining, Endurance riding, Show jumping, Eventing, youth events such as equitation, and others. They make reliable pleasure, trail, and working ranch horses for those who are not interested in competition.

See also: Arabian Horse Association and Endurance riding

Arabians dominate the sport of Endurance riding because of their stamina, where they are the leading breed in competitions such as the Tevis Cup that can cover up to 100 miles in a day. They also participate in FEI-sanctioned endurance events worldwide, including the World Equestrian Games.

"Sport Horse" events for Arabian horses are a new trend in the USA, though Arabians have participated in this type of competition for a long time in Europe and Australia. The Arabian Horse Association began hosting an Arabian and Half Arabian Sport Horse National Championship in 2003 that within two years grew to draw over 1900 entries competing in Hunter, Jumper, Sport Horse Under Saddle, Sport Horse In Hand, Dressage, and Combined driving competition.

There is an extensive series of horse shows around the United States for Arabian, Half-Arabian, and Anglo-Arabian Horses, sanctioned by the USEF and Arabian Horse Association. Classes offered include Western pleasure, reining, hunt seat and saddle seat English pleasure, and Halter, plus the very popular "Native" costume class.^[59] Other nations also sponsor major shows for the Arabian breed.

Arabians have excelled in open events against other breeds. One of the most famous examples in the field of western riding competition was the Arabian mare Ronteza, who defeated 50 horses of all breeds to win the 1961 Reined Cow Horse championship at the Cow Palace in San Francisco, CA.^[60] The Arabian stallion Aaraf won an all-breed cutting horse competition at the Quarter Horse Congress in the 1950s.^[61]

Arabians and part-Arabians have also appeared at open sport horse events and even Olympic level competition. At the 1936 Olympics, the French, with two Anglo-Arabians on their team, won the Silver team medal in Dressage. The 14.2 hand purebred gelding Russian Roulett is noted for winning multiple amateur jumping classes against horses of all breeds on the Southern California open jumping "A" circuit.^[62] Most recently a horse named Theodore O'Connor, nicknamed "Teddy," a 14.1 (or 14.2, sources vary) hand gelding that is a cross of Thoroughbred, Arabian, and Shetland pony breeding, has won two gold medals at the 2007 Pan American Games and was third at the 2007 Rolex Kentucky Three Day CCI competition.^[63][64]

Arabians are involved in a wide variety of activities, including fairs, movies, parades, circuses and other places where horses are showcased.

Arabians have been popular in movies, dating back to the silent film era when Rudolph Valentino rode the Kellogg Arabian stallion Jadaan in 1926's Son of the Sheik.^[65] Other Arabian horse film stars include the stallions Cass Ole in The Black Stallion and El Mokhtar in The Black Stallion Returns. Arabian horses also appeared in Lawrence of Arabia, The 13th Warrior, Hidalgo, and other films.

Arabians are mascots for football teams, performing crowd-pleasing activities on the field and sidelines. One of the horses who serves as "Traveler", the mascot for the University of Southern California Trojans, has been a purebred Arabian. "Thunder", a stage name for the purebred Arabian stallion J B Kobask, was mascot for the Denver Broncos from 1993 until his retirement in 2004, when the Arabian gelding Winter Solstyce took over as "Thunder II".^[66] Cal Poly Pomona's W.K. Kellogg Arabian Horse Center Equestrian Unit and many other Arabian organizations have made Arabian horses a regular sight at the annual Tournament of Roses Parade held each New Year's day in Pasadena, California.

Arabians also are used on search and rescue teams and occasionally for police work. Some Arabians are also used in polo in the USA and Europe, in the Turkish equestrian sport of Cirit (pronounced Jee-rit), as well as circuses, therapeutic horseback riding programs, and on guest ranches.

Misunderstandings and myths plague the Arabian breed. Through, as noted above, purebred Arabians are competitive against other breeds, Arabians are relatively uncommon at some high-level all-breed competitions. There are many reasons, some justifiable, others due to misunderstandings and inaccurate information.

Some people believe that it is more difficult to train a "hot-blooded" horse such as the Arabian, Thoroughbred, Barb and Akhal-Teke. However, most Arabians have a natural tendency to cooperate with humans, but when treated badly, like any horse, can become excessively nervous or anxious, though seldom become vicious unless seriously spoiled or subjected to extreme abuse. With proper handling, Arabians are suitable riding horses for riders at all levels.^[67]

Some people confuse the refinement of Arabians with having weak or too-light bone.^[68] However, the USEF breed standard requires Arabians have solid bone and correct conformation,^[69] and the superiority of the breed in endurance competition clearly demonstrates that well-bred Arabians are strong, sound horses with good bone and superior stamina. At international levels of FEI-sponsored endurance events, Arabians and half-Arabians are the dominant performers in distance competition worldwide.

Another myth is that Arabians are not strong because of their size. However, the smaller size of the Arabian is not a physical liability. The Arabian horse is noted for dense, strong bone, short cannons, sound feet, and a broad, short back; all of which give the breed physical strength comparable to many taller animals. Clearly, for tasks where the sheer weight of the horse matters, such as farm work done by a draft horse, or team roping, any lighter-weight horse is at a disadvantage, but for most purposes, the Arabian is a strong and hardy breed of light horse able to carry any type of rider in most equestrian pursuits.

Another misconception confuses the skeletal structure of the spine with the angle of the hip, implying that the comparatively horizontal croup and high-carried tail of Arabians make it difficult for them to use their hindquarters properly. However, the correlation of spine and hip is in length, not angle. All horses need a good length of croup and good length of hip, and the two go together as a rule. The hip angle, on the other hand, is not necessarily correlated to the line of the croup. (If it were, then a goose rump would not be considered a conformation flaw). The croup is formed by the sacral vertebrae. The hip angle is determined by the attachment of the illium to the spine, the structure and length of the femur, the relationship to the cannon bone, and other aspects of hindquarter anatomy. A good-quality Arabian has both a relatively horizontal croup and a properly angled pelvis with good length of croup and depth of hip to allow impulsion.

see also Horse conformation

Arabians are sometimes plagued by excessively romantic myths that give them near-human intelligence, mystical or psychic powers, telepathy, and other miraculous abilities. Though well-intentioned, such myths sometimes lead people who know little about horses to purchase an Arabian and expect them not to act like ordinary horses. However, like any horse, Arabians have natural horse behaviors and instincts, so people must never forget the basic rules of horse safety when handling them.

There is intense debate over the role the Arabian played in the development of other light horse breeds. While the complete tale will not be verified until the horse genome is mapped, it is thought that all modern domesticated horse breeds descended from one of four Wild prototypes, one of which was the light, "dry," oriental horse adapted to the desert climate, the prototype of the modern Arabian. Because of the location of the Middle East as a crossroads of the ancient world, as well as one of the earliest locations of domestication of the horse, oriental horses spread throughout Europe and Asia both in ancient and modern times.

Thus, there is little doubt that "oriental" blood was crossed on that of other wild prototypes to create light riding horses; the only actual controversy is at what point the "oriental" prototype could be called an "Arabian," how much Arabian blood was mixed with local animals, and at what point in history. For some breeds, such as the Thoroughbred, Arabian influence of specific animals is documented in written stud books. For older breeds, dating the influx of Arabian ancestry is more difficult.

For example, Mitochondrial DNA studies of the modern Andalusian horse of the Iberian peninsula and Barb horse of North Africa, present convincing evidence that both breeds crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and influenced one another. ^[70] While outside cultures, and the horses they brought with them, influenced the predecessor to the Iberian horse in both the time of Ancient Rome and again with the Islamic invasions of the 8th century, it is difficult to precisely trace the details of the journeys taken by waves of conquerors and their horses as they traveled from the Middle East to North Africa and across Gibraltar to southern Europe. Though the studies did not compare Andalusian and Barb mDNA to that of Arabian horses, there is evidence that horses resembling Arabians, whether before or after the breed was called an "Arabian," were part of this genetic mix. Arabians and Barbs, though related to one another, are quite different in appearance, particularly in tail carriage,^[35] and the historical record illustrates horses of Arabian, not Barb type, fighting against the armies of Europe.^[71] There is also historical documentation that Islamic invaders raised Arabian horses in Spain prior to the Reconquista.^[72] Furthermore, the Spanish documented imports of Arabian horses in 1850, 1884 and 1885 that were used in Andalusian breeding.^[73]

One set of hot debates within the Arabian industry are about bloodlines. In particular, breeders argue about the genetic "purity" of various pedigrees, discussing whether some horses descend from "impure" animals that cannot be traced to the desert Bedouin. The major factions are as follows:

• The Arabian Horse Association (AHA) states, "The origin of the purebred Arabian horse was the Arabian desert, and all Arabians ultimately trace their lineage to this source." In essence, all horses accepted for registration in the United States are deemed to be "purebred" Arabians by AHA.^[74]
• The World Arabian Horse Association (WAHO) has the broadest definition of a purebred Arabian. WAHO states, "A Purebred Arabian horse is one which appears in any purebred Arabian Stud Book or Register listed by WAHO as acceptable." By this definition, over 95% of the known purebred Arabian horses in the world are registered in stud books acceptable to WAHO.^[75] WAHO also researched the purity question in general, and its findings are on its web site, describing both the research and the political issues surrounding Arabian horse bloodlines, particularly in America.^[27]
• At the other end of the spectrum, the Al Khamsa organization takes the position that "The horses of primary interest to Al Khamsa, which are called “Al Khamsa Arabian Horses,” are those horses in North America that can reasonably be assumed to descend entirely from bedouin Arabian horses bred by horse-breeding bedouin tribes of the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula without admixture from sources unacceptable to Al Khamsa."^[76] By this rigorous definition, only about 2% of all registered Arabian horses qualify as "Al Khamsa Arabian Horses."
• "Blue Star" designation is the most rigid, accepting only horses who qualify as Al Khamsa, but also as having no lines to the "Mu'niqi" strain, which some claim was "contaminated" by crossbreeding with Turkoman Horses about 300 years ago. Horses who otherwise meet this standard except for Mu'niqi blood are sometimes referred to as "Blue List."^[77][78]
• There are also a number of breeders who specialize in preservation breeding of various bloodlines. However, these breeders generally do not assert that their horses are the only "pure" Arabians.
• Ironically, some pure-blooded desert-bred Arabians in the Middle East today cannot be registered because the Bedouin who own them see no need to obtain a piece of paper to verify the purity of their horses.^[79]

There are four known genetic conditions in Arabian horses which usually result in euthansia of the affected animal. All four are thought to be autosomal recessive conditions, which means that the flawed gene is not sex-linked and has to come from both parents for an affected foal to be born. A fifth genetic condition is not usually fatal, but can be disabling if not treated.^[80]

Arabians are not the only breed of horse to have problems with inherited diseases; fatal or disabling genetic conditions also exist in the American Quarter Horse, American Paint Horse, American Saddlebred, Miniature horse, and Belgian. Genetic conditions such as Lethal white syndrome and dominant white can affect several breeds (though not purebred Arabians).

The "genetic lethal" conditions (so called, though two of the four are not invariably lethal) in Arabian horses are:

• Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID). Similar to the "bubble boy" condition in humans, an affected foal is born with no immune system, and thus generally dies of an opportunistic infection, usually before the age of five months. There is a DNA test that can detect healthy horses who are carriers of the gene causing SCID, thus testing and careful, planned matings can now eliminate the possibility of an affected foal ever being born.^{[81][82] [83]}
• Cerebellar abiotrophy (CA). An affected foal is usually born without symptoms, but at some point, usually after six weeks of age, develops severe incoordination, a head tremor, wide-legged stance and other symptoms related to the death of the purkinje cells in the cerebellum. Such foals are frequently diagnosed only after they have crashed into a fence or fallen over backwards, and sometimes their symptoms are misdiagnosed as a head injury caused by the accident. The only way to confirm a diagnosis of CA is to examine the brain after euthanasia. The degree of severity varies, with some foals having fast onset of severe coordination problems, others showing milder symptoms. In theory, mildly affected horses could live a full lifespan, but in practice most are euthanized before adulthood because they are so accident-prone as to be a danger to themselves and others. There is currently no genetic test for CA.^[84]
• Lavender Foal Syndrome (LFS), also called Coat Color Dilution Lethal (CCDL). The condition gets it name because most affected foals are born with a coat color dilution that lightens the tips of the coat hairs, or even the entire hair shaft. Foals with LFS are unable to stand at birth, often have seizures, and are usually euthanized within a few days of birth. There is currently no genetic test for LFS.^[85][86]
• Occipital Atlanto-Axial Malformation (OAAM). This is a condition where the cervical vertebrae fuse together in the neck and at the base of the skull. Symptoms range from mild incoordination to the paralysis of both front and rear legs. Some affected foals cannot stand to nurse, in others the symptoms may not be seen for several weeks. This is the only cervical spinal cord disease seen in horses less than 1 month of age, and a radiograph can diagnose the condition. There is no genetic test for OAAM, and the hereditary component of this condition is not well researched at present.^[87]
• Equine juvenile epilepsy, sometimes referred to as "benign" epilepsy or "idiopathic" epilepsy, is not usually fatal. Foals are born normal and appear normal between epileptic seizures, usually outgrowing the condition between 12 and 18 months. ^[86] Affected foals may show signs of epilepsy anywhere from two days to six months from birth.^[88] Symptoms of the condition can be treated with traditional anti-seizure medications, which may reduce the severity of symptoms.^[89] Though the condition has been studied since 1985 at the University of California, Davis, the genetic mode of inheritance is unclear, though the cases studied were all of one general bloodline group. ^[88] Some researchers have suggested that epilepsy may be linked in some fashion to Lavender Foal Syndrome due to the fact that it occurs in similar bloodlines and some horses have produced foals with both conditions.^[86]

The organization F.O.A.L. (Fight Off Arabian Lethals) is a clearinghouse for information on these conditions.^[90] Additional information is available from WAHO (World Arabian Horse Association)^[91]

• Archer, Rosemary, Colin Pearson and Cecil Covey. The Crabbet Arabian Stud: Its History and Influence. Crabbet Organisation, 1978. ISBN 0-906382-13-0
• Budiansky, Stephen. The Nature of Horses. Free Press, 1997. ISBN 0-684-82768-9
• Edwards, Gladys Brown. The Arabian: War Horse to Show Horse. Arabian Horse Trust of America; 3rd rev. edition, 1980. ISBN 0-938276-00-X
• Wentworth, Judith Anne Dorothea Blunt-Lytton. The Authentic Arabian Horse, 3rd ed. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1979.
• Upton, Peter and Amirsadeghi, Hossein (editor), Rik van Lent, photographer. Arabians First Chronicle Books, 1998, 2006. ISBN 0811854019

• Arabian Horse Association (USA)
• Arabian Horse Breeders Alliance (USA)
• Arabian Horse Society of Australia
• Argentine Arabian Horse Association
• Weatherbys (UK) Maintainer of the General Stud Book
• World Arabian Horse Organisation

• Al Khamsa Organization
• CMK Arabians - historical articles
• Frequently asked questions about Arabian horses
• "History of the Australian Colonial Arabian"
• "History of the Egyptian Arabian," The Pyramid Society
• "Horse of the Desert Bedouin"
• Korona Polish Arabian Breeders society
• Spanish Arabian Horse Society
• W.K.Kellogg Arabian Horse Library