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{{Short description|Consonant articulated through the pharynx}}
{{about-distinguish-text|the [[Place of articulation]]|[[Pharyngealization]], a type of secondary articulation}}
{{Refimprove|date=June 2018}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = February 2019}}
{{Use American English|date = February 2019}}
[[File:Faryngal consonant.svg|thumb|200px|Pharyngeal place of articulation]]

A '''pharyngeal consonant''' is a [[consonant]] that is [[place of articulation|articulated]] primarily in the [[pharynx]]. Some phoneticians distinguish upper pharyngeal consonants, or "high" pharyngeals, pronounced by retracting the root of the tongue in the mid to upper pharynx, from (ary)epiglottal consonants, or "low" pharyngeals, which are articulated with the [[aryepiglottic folds]] against the [[epiglottis]] at the entrance of the larynx, as well as from epiglotto-pharyngeal consonants, with both movements being combined.

Stops and trills can be reliably produced only at the epiglottis, and fricatives can be reliably produced only in the upper pharynx.{{why|date=January 2024}}{{cn|date=January 2024}} When they are treated as distinct places of articulation, the term ''radical consonant'' may be used as a cover term, or the term ''[[guttural consonant]]s'' may be used instead. 

Pharyngeal consonants can trigger effects on neighboring vowels. Instead of [[uvular consonants|uvulars]], which nearly always trigger retraction, pharyngeals tend to trigger lowering. For example, in [[Moroccan Arabic]], pharyngeals tend to lower neighboring vowels (corresponding to the formant 1).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karaoui |first=Fazia |last2=Djeradi |first2=Amar |last3=Laprie |first3=Yves |date=13 November 2021 |title=The Articulatory and acoustics Effects of Pharyngeal Consonants on Adjacent Vowels in Arabic Language |url=https://aclanthology.org/2021.icnlsp-1.32/ |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Natural Language and Speech Processing (ICNLSP 2021) |pages=7 |via=ACLAnthology}}</ref> Meanwhile, in Chechen, it causes lowering as well, in addition to centralization and lengthening of the segment /a/.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Polinsky |first=Maria |title=The Oxford handbook of languages of the Caucasus |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-069069-4 |series=Oxford handbooks |location=New York}}</ref>

In addition, consonants and vowels may be secondarily [[pharyngealized]]. Also, [[strident vowel]]s are defined by an accompanying epiglottal trill.

==Pharyngeal consonants in the IPA==
Pharyngeal/epiglottal consonants in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA):

{|class=wikitable
|-
! rowspan="2" | IPA
! rowspan="2" | Description
! colspan="4" | Example
|-
! Language
! Orthography
! IPA
! Meaning
|-
! <big>{{IPA|ʡ}}</big>
| [[epiglottal plosive|voiceless* pharyngeal (epiglottal) plosive]]
| rowspan="3" |[[Aghul language|Aghul]], Richa dialect<ref>Kodzasov, S. V. <u>Pharyngeal Features in the Daghestan Languages</u>. ''Proceedings of the Eleventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences'' (Tallinn, Estonia, Aug 1-7 1987), pp. 142-144.</ref>
| йа'''гьІ'''
| {{IPA|[jaʡ]}}{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
| 'center'
|-
! <big>{{IPA|ʜ}}</big>
| [[voiceless epiglottal trill|voiceless pharyngeal (epiglottal) trill]]
| '''хІ'''ач
| {{IPA|[ʜatʃ]}}
| 'apple'
|-
! <big>{{IPA|ʢ}}</big>
| [[voiced epiglottal trill|voiced pharyngeal (epiglottal) trill]]
| '''І'''екв
| {{IPA|[ʢakʷ]}}
| 'light'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ħ}}</big>
|[[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]
| rowspan="2" |Arabic
|{{lang|ar|'''حَـ'''ر}}
|{{IPA|[ħar]}}
| 'heat'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʕ}}</big>
|[[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]**
|{{lang|ar|'''عـ'''ين}}
|{{IPA|[ʕajn]}}
| 'eye'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʡ̯}}</big>
|[[epiglottal flap|pharyngeal (epiglottal) flap]]
| [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]]
|
| {{IPA|[nd̠oːʡ̆o]}}  {{Audio-IPA|Nd̠ódoʡo.wav|[Nd̠ódoʡo]}}
| 'mud'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʕ̞}}</big>
|[[pharyngeal approximant]]
|[[Danish phonology|Danish]]
|'''r'''avn
|{{IPA|[ʕ̞ɑʊ̯ˀn]}}
|'raven'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʡʼ}}</big>
|[[epiglottal ejective|pharyngeal (epiglottal) ejective]]
| [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]]
|
|
|
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʡ͡ʜ}}</big>
|[[Voiceless epiglottal affricate]]
|[[Haida language|Haida (Hydaburg Dialect)]]
|'''x̱'''ung<ref>{{Cite web |title=Haida Words |url=https://www.native-languages.org/haida_words.htm |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=www.native-languages.org}}</ref>
|[ʡ͡ʜuŋ]
|'father'
|-
!<big>{{IPA|ʡ͡ʢ}}</big>
|[[Voiced epiglottal affricate]]
| [[Somali language|Somali]]<ref name=":0">{{cite report |last1=Edmondson |first1=Jerold A. |last2=Esling |first2=John H. |last3=Harris |first3=Jimmy G. |title=Supraglottal cavity shape, linguistic register, and other phonetic features of Somali |url=http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/somali.pdf |access-date=2020-11-21 |archive-date=2012-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315001803/http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/somali.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref>
|'''c'''ad
|[ʡʢaʔ͡t]
|'white'
|}

:{{anchor|Affricates}}<nowiki>*</nowiki>A voiced epiglottal stop may not be possible. When an epiglottal stop becomes voiced intervocalically in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], for example, it becomes a [[flap consonant|tap]]. Phonetically, however, both voiceless and voiced affricates and off-glides are attested: {{IPA|[ʡħ, ʡʕ]}} (Esling 2010:&nbsp;695).
:<nowiki>**</nowiki> Although traditionally placed in the [[fricative]] row of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] chart, {{IPA|[ʕ]}} is usually an approximant. Frication is difficult to produce or to distinguish because the voicing in the glottis and the constriction in the pharynx are so close to each other (Esling 2010:&nbsp;695, after Laufer 1996). The IPA symbol is ambiguous, but no language distinguishes fricative and approximant at this place of articulation. For clarity, the lowering diacritic may used to specify that the manner is approximant ({{IPA|[ʕ̞]}}) and a raising diacritic to specify that the manner is fricative ({{IPA|[ʕ̝]}}).

The Hydaburg dialect of [[Haida language|Haida]] has a trilled epiglottal {{IPA|[ʜ]}} and a trilled epiglottal affricate {{IPA|[ʡʜ]}}~{{IPA|[ʡʢ]}}. (There is some voicing in all Haida affricates, but it is analyzed as an effect of the vowel.){{cn|date=June 2018}}

For transcribing [[disordered speech]], the [[extIPA]] provides symbols for upper-pharyngeal stops, ⟨{{IPA|ꞯ}}⟩ and ⟨{{IPA|𝼂}}⟩.

==Place of articulation==
The IPA first distinguished epiglottal consonants in 1989, with a contrast between pharyngeal and epiglottal fricatives, but advances in [[laryngoscopy]] since then have caused specialists to re-evaluate their position. Since a trill can be made only in the pharynx with the [[aryepiglottic folds]] (in the pharyngeal trill of the northern dialect of [[Haida language|Haida]], for example), and incomplete constriction at the epiglottis, as would be required to produce epiglottal fricatives, generally results in trilling,{{why|date=December 2023}} there is no contrast between (upper) pharyngeal and epiglottal based solely on place of articulation. Esling (2010) thus restores a unitary pharyngeal place of articulation, with the consonants being described by the IPA as epiglottal fricatives differing from pharyngeal fricatives in their [[manner of articulation]] rather than in their place: 

{{blockquote|The so-called "Epiglottal fricatives" are represented [here] as pharyngeal trills, {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}}, since the place of articulation is identical to {{IPA|[ħ ʕ]}}, but trilling of the aryepiglottic folds is more likely to occur in tighter settings of the laryngeal constrictor or with more forceful airflow. The same "epiglottal" symbols could represent pharyngeal fricatives that have a higher larynx position than {{IPA|[ħ ʕ]}}, but a higher larynx position is also more likely to induce trilling than in a pharyngeal fricative with a lowered larynx position. Because {{IPA|[ʜ ʢ]}} and {{IPA|[ħ ʕ]}} occur at the same Pharyngeal/Epiglottal place of articulation (Esling, 1999), the logical phonetic distinction to make between them is in manner of articulation, trill versus fricative.<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., p 695.<br>The reference "Esling, 1999" is to "The iPA categories 'pharyngeal' and 'epiglottal': laryngoscopic observations of the pharyngeal articulations and larynx height." ''Language and Speech'', 42, 349–372.</ref>}}

{{anchor|Epiglotto-pharyngeal consonant}}Edmondson et al. distinguish several subtypes of pharyngeal consonant.<ref name="Amispaper">Edmondson, Jerold A., John H. Esling, Jimmy G. Harris, & Huang Tung-chiou (n.d.) [http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/amisf.pdf "A laryngoscopic study of glottal and epiglottal/pharyngeal stop and continuant articulations in Amis—an Austronesian language of Taiwan"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717075852/http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/amisf.pdf |date=July 17, 2012 }}</ref> Pharyngeal or epiglottal stops and trills are usually produced by contracting the aryepiglottic folds of the larynx against the epiglottis. That articulation has been distinguished as ''aryepiglottal''. In pharyngeal fricatives, the root of the tongue is retracted against the back wall of the pharynx. In a few languages, such as [[Achumawi language|Achumawi]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite thesis |type=Ph.D. |title=Aspects of Pit River Phonology |url=http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/316-0599/roa-316-nevin-4.pdf |last=Nevin  |first=Bruce  |year=1998 |publisher=The University of Pennsylvania }}</ref> [[Amis language|Amis]] of [[Taiwan]]<ref name="Amisvideo">{{Cite web |url=http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/movies.htm |title=Video clips |access-date=June 2, 2015 |archive-date=September 2, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902233004/http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/movies.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and perhaps some of the [[Salishan languages]], the two movements are combined, with the aryepiglottic folds and epiglottis brought together and retracted against the pharyngeal wall, an articulation that has been termed ''epiglotto-pharyngeal''. The IPA does not have diacritics to distinguish this articulation from standard aryepiglottals; Edmondson et al. use the ''ad hoc'', somewhat misleading, transcriptions {{angbr IPA|ʕ͡ʡ}} and {{angbr IPA|ʜ͡ħ}}.<ref name="Amispaper"/> There are, however, several diacritics for subtypes of pharyngeal sound among the [[Voice Quality Symbols]].

Although upper-pharyngeal plosives are not found in the world's languages, apart from the rear closure of some [[click consonant]]s, they occur in disordered speech. See [[voiceless upper-pharyngeal plosive]] and [[voiced upper-pharyngeal plosive]].

==Distribution==
Pharyngeals are known primarily from three areas of the world: 
#the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]] and the [[Horn of Africa]], in the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], [[Berber languages|Berber]] (mostly in borrowings from Arabic<ref>{{Citation |last=Kossmann |first=Maarten |title=Berber-Arabic Language Contact |date=2017-03-29 |url=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-232 |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |access-date=2023-05-30 |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.232 |isbn=978-0-19-938465-5}}</ref>) and [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branches of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] language family 
#the [[Caucasus]], in the [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest]], and [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] language families 
#[[British Columbia]], in the Northern [[Haida language|Haida]] dialects, in the [[Interior Salish languages|Interior Salish]] branch of the [[Salishan languages|Salishan]] language family, and in the southern branch of the [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]] language family.

There are scattered reports of pharyngeals elsewhere, as in:
*[[Indo-European languages]]:
**According to the [[laryngeal theory#Pronunciation|laryngeal theory]], [[Proto-Indo-European]] might have had pharyngeal consonants.
**[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]:
***[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]:
****[[Western Iranian languages|Western]]:
*****[[Northwestern Iranian languages|Northwestern]]:
******[[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]: [ħ], [ʕ]{{efn|name=kurdish|Mostly occurs in words of Arabic origin, mostly in word-initial position}}
******[[Zaza–Gorani languages|Zaza–Gorani]]:
*******[[Zaza language|Zaza]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
*******[[Gorani language|Gorani]]: [ħ], [ʕ]{{efn|name=arabic|Borrowed from Arabic}}
*****[[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern]]:
******[[Kumzari language|Kumzari]]: [ħ]
******[[Persian language|Persian]]:
*******[[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]]:
********[[Judeo-Tat]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
****[[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern]]:
*****Northastern:
******[[Yaghnobi language|Yaghnobi]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=yaghnobi|Appear mostly in loanwords. Native words with those sounds are rare and mostly onomatopoeic.}}, [ʕ]{{efn|name=yaghnobi}}
***[[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]:
****Northern:
*****[[Kalasha-ala]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=arabic}}, [ʕ]{{efn|name=arabic}}
*****[[Kamkata-vari language|Kamkata-vari]]: 
******[[Kamviri dialect]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=arabic}}, [ʕ] {{efn|name=arabic}}
***[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]:
****[[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Northern]]
*****[[Western Pahari]]
******[[Kullui]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=kullui|Historically derives from /s/ and occurs word-finally, e.g. [ɡʱɑːħ] "grass", [biːħ] "twenty"}}
****[[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]]
*****[[Bengali-Assamese languages|Bengali-Assamese]]
******some eastern [[Bengali dialects]]: [ʜ]{{efn|name=bengali|Mainly realized as such in very eastern regions; often also debuccalized or phonetically realised as /x/. Corresponds to /kʰ/ in western and central dialects}}
****[[Indo-Aryan languages#Western Zone|Western]]:
*****[[Domari language|Domari]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
****[[Indo-Aryan languages#Northwestern Zone|Northwestern]]:
*****[[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]]:
******[[Luwati language|Luwati]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=arabic}}, [ʕ]{{efn|name=arabic}}
**[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]:
***[[East Slavic languages|East]]:
****[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: {{IPAblink|ʕ}}{{efn|name=ukrainian|According to some linguists, Ukrainian may have a pharyngeal {{IPAblink|ʕ}}<ref name="DanVak12">{{Harvcoltxt|Danyenko|Vakulenko|1995|p=12}}</ref> (when devoiced, {{IPAblink|ħ}} or sometimes {{IPAblink|x}} in weak positions).<ref name="DanVak12" /> According to others, it is glottal {{IPAblink|ɦ}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Pugh|Press|2005|p=23}}</ref><ref>The sound is described as "laryngeal fricative consonant" ({{lang|uk|гортанний
щілинний приголосний}}) in the official orthography: '§&nbsp;14. Letter H' in Український правопис, Kyiv: Naukova dumka, 2012, p. 19 ([http://izbornyk.org.ua/pravopys/rozdil1.htm#par14 see e-text])</ref><ref>Українська мова: енциклопедія, Kyiv, 2000, p. 85.</ref>}}
**[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]:
***the approximant [ʕ̞] is a realization of {{IPA|/r/}} in such [[Germanic languages]] as [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swabian German]].
**[[Romance languages|Romance]]:
***[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]:
****[[Western Romance languages|Western]]:
*****[[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]]:
******[[West Iberian languages|West]]:
*******[[Galician-Portuguese]]:
********some dialects of [[Galician language|Galician]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=gheada|[[Gheada]]}}
*******Castilian:
********[[Judeo-Spanish]]:
*********[[Haketia]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=hebrew|Borrowed from Arabic and Hebrew}}, [ʕ]{{efn|name=hebrew}}
*[[Austronesian languages]]:
**[[Formosan languages|Formosan]]:
***[[East Formosan languages|East]]:
****[[Amis language|Amis]]: [ʡ] ~ [ʢ], [ʜ]{{efn|name=amis|It's unclear if [h] is a separate phoneme from [ʜ] or if it's just an allophone of it. The voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] is a word-final allophone of /ʜ/}}
***[[Atayalic languages|Atayalic]]:
****[[Atayal language|Atayal]]: [ħ]
***[[Northern Formosan languages|Northern]]:
****[[Pazeh language|Pazeh]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=pazeh|Varies between glottal ([h]) and pharyngeal realizations and is sometimes difficult to distinguish from /x/}}
**[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]:
***[[Malayic languages|Malayic]]:
****[[Kedah Malay]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=Kedah|Word-final realisation of /r/}}
***[[Central–Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central–Eastern]]:
****[[Central Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central]]:
*****[[Sumba–Flores languages|Sumba–Flores]]:
******[[Savu languages|Savu]]:
*******[[Dhao language|Dhao]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=dhao|Sometimes silent, but contrasts with a glottal stop onset in vowel-initial words within a phrase. Its phonemic status is not clear. It has an "extremely limited distribution", linking noun phrases (/ʔiki/ 'small', /ʔana ʕiki/ 'small child') and clauses (/ʕaa/ 'and', /ʕoo/ 'also')}}
*****[[Timoric languages|Timoric]]:
******[[Mambai language (Timor)|Mambai]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=Mumbai|In free variation with [h]}}
*[[Niger–Congo languages]]:
**[[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic-Congo]]:
***[[Volta–Congo languages|Volta-Congo]]:
****[[Volta–Niger languages|Volta-Niger]]:
*****[[Gbe languages|Gbe]]:
******[[Ewe language|Ewe]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=ewe|Has also been described as uvular [ʁ] or glottal [ɦ]}}
***[[Senufo languages|Senufo]]:
****[[Suppire–Mamara languages|Suppire–Mamara]]:
*****[[Minyanka language|Minyanka]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=minyanka|Typically heard when in between vowels, or as an allophone of /ɡ/ when in intervocalic position}}
*[[Nilo-Saharan languages]]:
**[[Bʼaga languages|Bʼaga]]: 
***[[Daatsʼiin language|Daatsʼiin]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=daats'iin|Only occurs when following /l/ or /r/ and preceding /a/, and it can be analyzed as an allophone of the glottal stop /ʔ/}}
**[[Saharan languages|Saharan]]:
*** Eastern:
****[[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=arabic}}
**[[Songhay languages|Songhay]]:
***[[Northern Songhay languages|Northern]]:
****[[Tadaksahak]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
****[[Tagdal language|Tagdal]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
****[[Korandje language|Korandje]]: [ħ], [ʕ]
*[[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages]]:
**[[Chukotkan languages|Chukotkan]]:
***[[Koryak language|Koryak]]: [ʕ]
***[[Alyutor language|Alyutor]]: [ʕ]
*the [[language isolate]] [[Kusunda language|Kusunda]] of [[Nepal]]: [ʕ]{{efn|name=kusunda|In free variation with [ʁ]}}
*the [[Papuan languages|Papuan]] language [[Teiwa language|Teiwa]]: [ħ]
*the [[Guaicuruan languages|Guaicuruan]] language [[Pilagá language|Pilagá]]: [ʕ]
*the [[Mayan languages|Mayan]] language [[Achi language|Achi]]: [ʕ]
*the [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] language [[Stoney language|Stoney (Nakoda)]]: [ħ]{{efn|name=stoney|In the Morley dialect}}, [ʕ]{{efn|name=stoney}}
*the [[Achumawi language]] of [[California]]: [ʜ]
{{Notelist}}

The fricatives and trills (the pharyngeal and epiglottal fricatives) are frequently conflated with pharyngeal fricatives in literature. That was the case for [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] and Northern [[Haida language|Haida]], for example, and it is likely to be true for many other languages. The distinction between these sounds was recognized by IPA only in 1989, and it was little investigated until the 1990s.

==See also==
* [[Pharyngealization]]
* [[Strident vowel]]
* [[Ayin]]
* [[Heth (letter)|Heth]]
* [[Guttural]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*{{SOWL}}
* Maddieson, I., & Wright, R. (1995). The vowels and consonants of Amis: A preliminary phonetic report. In I. Maddieson (Ed.), ''UCLA working papers in phonetics: Fieldwork studies of targeted languages III'' (No. 91, pp.&nbsp;45–66). Los Angeles: The UCLA Phonetics Laboratory Group. [http://escholarship.org/uc/item/3h25w3h3#page=48 (in pdf)]

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