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{{Short description|None}}
[[File:I0016902.jpg|upright=1.2|alt=The poster states “the empire needs men! The overseas states all answer the call. Helped by the young lions the old lion defies his foes. Enlist now.” There is an olden lion standing on a rock with four young lions in the background.|thumb|A recruitment poster used in Canada during World War I]]
{{CanWars20thC}} 
The history of '''Canada in World War I''' began on August 4, 1914, when the [[United Kingdom]] entered the [[World War I|First World War]] (1914–1918) by declaring war on [[German Empire|Germany]]. The [[United Kingdom declaration of war upon Germany (1914)|British declaration of war]] automatically brought [[Canada]] into the war, because of Canada's legal status as a British [[Dominion]] which left foreign policy decisions in the hands of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]].<ref name="CimentRussell2007">{{cite book|author1=James Ciment|author2=Thaddeus Russell|title=The home front encyclopedia: United States, Britain, and Canada in World Wars I and II|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0P04JuMSM8C&pg=PA423|year=2007|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-849-5|page=423}}</ref> However, the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] had the freedom to determine the country's level of involvement in the war.<ref name="CimentRussell2007"/><ref name="Ikas2010">{{cite book|author=Karin Ikas|title=Global Realignments and the Canadian Nation in the Third Millennium|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf-WGAYrAwsC&pg=PA37|year=2010|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-06134-6|page=37}}</ref> On August 4, 1914, the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] declared a war between Canada and Germany. The Militia was not mobilized and instead an independent [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] was raised.<ref name="Hart2001">{{cite book|author=Russell Hart|title=Clash of arms: how the allies won in Normandy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY9T_qw-aqMC&pg=PA39|year=2001|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=978-1-55587-947-1|page=39}}</ref>

Canada's sacrifices and contributions to the Great War changed its history and enabled it to become more independent, while also opening a deep rift between the French and English speaking populations. For the first time in [[Military history of Canada|Canadian military history]], Canadian forces fought as a distinct unit, first under a British commander but ultimately under a Canadian-born commander.<ref name="TuckerRoberts2006">{{cite book|author1=Spencer Tucker|author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts|title=World War I: A Student Encyclopedia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TogXVHTlxG4C&pg=PA176|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-879-8|page=176}}</ref> The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the Great War came during the [[Battle of the Somme|Somme]], [[Battle of Vimy Ridge|Vimy]], and [[Second Battle of Passchendaele|Passchendaele]] battles and what later became known as "[[Canada's Hundred Days]]".<ref name=cook>{{cite journal|author=Tim Cook |title='A Proper Slaughter': The March 1917 Gas Raid at Vimy |journal=Canadian Military History |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=7–24 |year=1999 |url=http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%208/Issue%202/Cook%20-%20A%20Proper%20Slaughter%20-%20The%20March%201917%20Gas%20Attack%20at%20Vimy%20Ridge.pdf |access-date=April 10, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327164336/http://www.wlu.ca/lcmsds/cmh/back%20issues/CMH/volume%208/Issue%202/Cook%20-%20A%20Proper%20Slaughter%20-%20The%20March%201917%20Gas%20Attack%20at%20Vimy%20Ridge.pdf |archive-date=March 27, 2009 }}</ref> Canada's total casualties stood at the end of the war at 67,000 [[Killed in action|killed]] and 173,000 [[Wounded in action|wounded]], out of an expeditionary force of 620,000 people mobilized (39 per cent of mobilized were casualties).<ref name="Leach2008ac">{{cite book|author=Norman Leach|title=Passchendaele: Canada's Triumph and Tragedy on the Fields of Flanders : an Illustrated History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOviwm2n-OEC&pg=PA40|year=2008|publisher=Coteau Books|isbn=978-1-55050-399-9|page=40}}</ref>

Canadians of British descent—the majority—gave widespread support arguing that Canadians had a duty to fight on behalf of their Motherland. Indeed, [[Wilfrid Laurier|Sir Wilfrid Laurier]], although French-Canadian,  spoke for the majority of English-Canadians when he proclaimed: "It is our duty to let Great Britain know and to let the friends and foes of Great Britain know that there is in Canada but one mind and one heart and that all Canadians are behind the Mother Country." However this did not stop Laurier along with [[Henri Bourassa]] from leading the opposition to conscription three years later in 1917.<ref name="Borden1969">{{cite book|author=Robert Borden|title=Robert Laird Borden: His Memoirs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZecgAAfKkpMC&pg=PA216|year=1969|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-6055-0|page=216}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[Robert Borden]] offered assistance to Great Britain, which was quickly accepted.

== Beginning ==
{{Further|Home front during World War I#Canada}}

=== Preparations ===
Prior to the war, military land forces were organized as the [[Canadian Militia]], with the regular [[Permanent Active Militia]], and the sedentary [[Non-Permanent Active Militia]].<ref name="Wood2010">{{cite book|author=James A. Wood|title=Militia Myths: Ideas of the Canadian Citizen Soldier, 1896–1921|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OujEhSfIvIsC&pg=PA6|year=2010|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1765-3|page=6}}</ref> The [[Minister of Militia and Defence]], [[Sam Hughes]], was ordered by Prime Minister [[Sir Robert Borden]] to train and recruit an army for overseas service. At the time, Canada had a regular army of only 3,110 men and a fledgling navy.<ref name="Leach2008">{{cite book|author=Norman Leach|title=Passchendaele: Canada's Triumph and Tragedy on the Fields of Flanders : an Illustrated History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qOviwm2n-OEC&pg=PA7|year=2008|publisher=Coteau Books|isbn=978-1-55050-399-9|page=7}}</ref>

Although the [[Commander of the Canadian Army|Chief of the General Staff]], [[Willoughby Gwatkin]], had been planning for a mass mobilization of Canadian Militia for some time, the mobilization plans were scrapped in favour of mobilizing a completely new land force, the [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]], to be based on numbered battalions and reporting to a separate ministry, the [[Ministry of Overseas Forces of Canada]]. Although the force was raised quickly, it was riven with political patronage and lacked a solid core of professional officers and NCOs.

=== Participation ===
[[File:48th Highlanders, 12th Infantry, & 10th Royal leave Toronto for camp (LOC ggbain.16977).jpg|thumb|Members of the [[48th Regiment "Highlanders"]] depart for camp from a [[Toronto]] armoury, 1914.]]
600,000 men and women participated in the war by enlisting as nurses, soldiers and chaplains.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/cef/index-e.html |title=Introduction – Soldiers of the First World War – CEF – Library and Archives Canada |publisher=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |date=2010-06-03 |access-date=2011-02-24 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130907154755/http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/databases/cef/index-e.html |archive-date=2013-09-07 }}</ref> In general, non-white people and those born in enemy nations were not welcomed into the military.<ref name="Dreisziger1990">{{cite book|author=Nándor F. Dreisziger|title=Ethnic Armies: Polyethnic Armed Forces from the Time of the Habsburgs to the Age of the Superpowers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bH5iO6oHqWUC&pg=PA16|year=1990|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-88920-993-0|page=16}}</ref> When Black people from [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]] volunteered their services, they were told, "This is not for you fellows, this is a white man's war."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.viu.ca/davies/H355H.Cda.WWI/Race%20and%20Recruitment%20in%20World%20War%20One.pdf |title=Race and Recruitment in World War I: Enlistment |author=[[James W. St. G. Walker]] |publisher=Vancouver Island University |year=2001 |page=1 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021174905/http://web.viu.ca/davies/H355H.Cda.WWI/Race%20and%20Recruitment%20in%20World%20War%20One.pdf |archive-date=2013-10-21 }}</ref> Nonetheless, some segregated units were formed. In 1915, [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Indigenous people]] were allowed to enlist and accepted into a [[114th Battalion (Haldimand), CEF|114th Battalion]] as well as others.<ref name="Benn2009">{{cite book|author=Carl Benn|title=Mohawks on the Nile: Natives Among the Canadian Voyageurs in Egypt, 1884–1885|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-olIPI8tGikC&pg=PA123|year=2009|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-55002-867-6|page=123}}</ref> In total, about 3,500 Indigenous people served with the Canadian Forces, but this figure has been disputed.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Talbot |first=Robert J. |title='It would be best to leave us alone': First Nations Responses to the Canadian War Effort |journal=Journal of Canadian Studies |year=2011 |volume=45|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_canadian_studies/summary/v045/45.1.talbot.html |issue=1 |page=111|doi=10.3138/jcs.45.1.90 |s2cid=142663965 }}</ref> The [[Japanese Canadians|Canadian Japanese]] Association in British Columbia put forward a volunteer reserve force of 227 men, some of whom were later admitted into the military.<ref name="Thirkell2000">{{cite book|author=Fred Thirkell|title=Vancouver & Beyond: Pictures and Stories from the Postcard Era, 1900–1914|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uquI52kWY7gC&pg=PA132|year=2000|publisher=Heritage House Publishing Co|isbn=978-1-894384-15-5|page=132}}</ref> The [[No. 2 Construction Battalion]] included black soldiers from both Canada and the United States, the latter having crossed into Canada in order to participate.<ref name="Reef2010">{{cite book|author=Catherine Reef|title=African Americans in the Military|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bq8dVn_W2XQC&pg=PT14|year=2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-3096-5|page=14}}</ref> The over one thousand [[Black Canadians]] who served continued to be segregated during their tour, both on ships and in camps.<ref name="FranceRodríguez2012">{{cite book|author1=M. Honoré France|author2=María del Carmen Rodríguez|author3=Geoffrey G. Hett|title=Diversity, Culture and Counselling 2e: A Canadian Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N6onkJfrvCoC&pg=PA205|year=2012|publisher=Brush Education|isbn=978-1-55059-441-6|page=205}}</ref> A deal between the Chinese government and the allies resulted in the enlistment of thousands of Chinese who formed the [[Chinese Labour Corps]] (CLC) mainly poor Chinese men from the North who were told they would be in non-combatant roles. The Canadian government had restricted the arrival of all Asians and the CLC were secretly landed in Victoria, British Columbia. They were drilled in the old quarantine station at William Head and secretly shipped across Canada in cattle-trucks.<ref>Quarantined: Life and Death at William Head Station 1872–1959. By Peter Johnson. 2013.</ref>

==Field formations==
===Canadian Corps===
{{Main|Canadian Corps}}
[[File:NeuvilleVitasse1918.jpg|thumb|The [[Canadian Corps]] field headquarters in [[Neuville-Vitasse]], 1918.]]
The [[Canadian Corps]] was formed as a field formation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the [[2nd Canadian Division]] in France.<ref name="Chartrand2012">{{cite book|author=Rene Chartrand|title=The Canadian Corps in World War I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6_5ml4ZJUEsC&pg=PA1898|year= 2012|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-1-78200-845-3|page=1898}}</ref> The soldiers of the [[corps]] were mostly volunteers,<ref name="English1991">{{cite book|author=John Alan English|title=The Canadian Army and the Normandy Campaign: A Study of Failure in High Command|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j7YFRkIQ8H0C&pg=PA15|year=1991|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-275-93019-6|page=15}}</ref> as conscription was not implemented until the end of the war (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]]).<ref name="SimonAbdel-Moneim2011">{{cite book|author1=Rita J. Simon|author2=Mohamed Alaa Abdel-Moneim|title=A Handbook of Military Conscription and Composition the World Over|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gNJslAIa8ZoC&pg=PA27|year=2011|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-6751-9|page=27}}</ref> The corps was expanded by the addition of the [[3rd Canadian Division]] in December 1915 and the [[4th Canadian Division]] in August 1916.<ref name="Chappell1985a">{{cite book|author=Mike Chappell|title=The Canadian Army at War|url=https://archive.org/details/canadianarmyatwa0000chap|url-access=registration|year=1985|publisher=Osprey Publishing|isbn=978-0-85045-600-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/canadianarmyatwa0000chap/page/8 8]}}</ref> The organization of a [[5th Canadian Division]] began in February 1917, but it was still not fully formed when it was broken up in February 1918 and its men used to reinforce the other four divisions.<ref name="Chappell1985a"/> Although the corps was within and under the command of the [[British Army]], there was considerable pressure among Canadian leaders, especially following the [[Battle of the Somme]], for the corps to fight as a single unit rather than spreading the divisions through the whole army.

Originally commanded by [[Lieutenant General]] Sir [[Edwin Alderson]] until 1916, command was then passed to Lieutenant General Sir [[Julian Byng]], later, Lord Byng of Vimy and [[Governor General of Canada]].<ref name="Horn2006">{{cite book|author=Bernd Horn|title=Perspectives on the Canadian Way of War: Serving the National Interest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MPVRbOOKKlMC&pg=RA1-PT83|year=2006|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-55002-901-7|page=1}}</ref> When Byng was promoted to a higher command in the summer of 1917, he was succeeded by the commander of the 1st Division, General Sir [[Arthur Currie]], giving the corps its first Canadian commanders.<ref name="Horn2006"/> In the later stages of the war, the Canadian Corps was among the most effective and respected of the military formations on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].<ref name=Godefroy>{{cite book |last=Godefroy |first=A. |date=April 1, 2006 |chapter=Canadian Military Effectiveness in the First World War |title=The Canadian Way of War: Serving the National Interest |editor-first=Bernd |editor-last=Horn |publisher=Dundurn Press |isbn=978-1-55002-612-2 |pages=191–193|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LqI4r3-PX5sC&pg=PA191}}</ref><ref name=Schreiber>{{cite book |last=Schreiber |first=Shane B |year=2004 |title=Shock Army of the British Empire: The Canadian Corps in the Last 100 Days of the Great Wars |publisher=Vanwell Publishing Ltd |isbn=1-55125-096-9 |page=intro}}</ref>

===Canadian Cavalry Brigade===
{{Main|Canadian Cavalry Brigade}}

The [[Canadian Cavalry Brigade]] arrived in France in 1915. Initially having three Canadian regiments and one British, in January 1916, it became an all-Canadian formation. The brigade was deployed separately from the Canadian Corps and was under the command of various British cavalry divisions. The brigade engaged in several battles, notably the [[Battle of Moreuil Wood]] 30 April 1918.

==Western Front==
{{Further|Western Front (World War I)|l1=Western Front|List of Canadian battles during the First World War#France and Flanders|l2=List of Canadian battles during World War I in France and Flanders}}

===1915===
{{see also|Winter operations 1914–1915|Second Battle of Artois|Third Battle of Artois}}

====Neuve Chapelle====
{{Main|Battle of Neuve Chapelle}}
The [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]] saw their [[Battle of Neuve Chapelle|first battle]] in March 1915 in the French town of [[Neuve Chapelle]].<ref name="Bridger2000">{{cite book|author=Geoffrey Bridger|title=The Battle of Neuve Chapelle|year=2000|publisher=Leo Cooper|isbn=978-0-85052-648-6|pages=1–2}}</ref> After arriving from [[Salisbury Plain]] in England, the Canadian forces were instructed to prevent the Germans from reinforcing the sector of Neuve Chapelle. This would allow the [[British 1st Army]], under General [[Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig|Douglas Haig]], to successfully push through German lines and establish a new Allied front line on conquered territory.<ref name="Dickson2007">{{cite book|author=Paul Douglas Dickson|title=A Thoroughly Canadian General: A Biography of General H.D.G. Crerar|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs-J7xMH5-0C&pg=PA35|year=2007|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-0802-2|page=35}}</ref>

Although the British were unable to exploit their advantage due to poor communication, it taught Canadians that artillery bombardment was too light to suppress the enemy trenches; that better artillery observation points were necessary; that reserves were too few to follow up success quickly; and most importantly, that the procedure of transmitting information and sending orders to the advanced troops was slow and difficult, and that the systems of communication were much too vulnerable.<ref>[http://www.collectionscanada.ca/firstworldwar/051806/05180602_e.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041217024007/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/firstworldwar/051806/05180602_e.html|date=December 17, 2004}}</ref>

====Second Battle of Ypres====
{{Main|Second Battle of Ypres}}
[[File:The Second Battle of Ypres.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Second Battle of Ypres]]'' by [[Richard Jack]]. The painting was the first commission completed for the Canadian Wars Memorials Fund.]]
In the first week of April 1915 the soldiers of the [[1st Canadian Division]] were moved to reinforce the salient where the British and Allied line pushed into the German line in a concave bend.<ref name="Busch2003fd">{{cite book|author=Briton C. Busch|title=Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZFKLXTRgUvgC&pg=PA51|year=2003|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-7108-2|page=51}}</ref> On 22 April, the Germans sought to eliminate this salient by using poison gas. Following an intensive artillery bombardment, they released 160 tons of [[chlorine gas]] from cylinders dug into the forward edge of their trenches into a light northeast wind—the first use of chlorine gas in the war.<ref name="Busch2003fd"/> As thick clouds of yellow-green chlorine drifted over their trenches the French colonial defences crumbled and the troops, completely overcome by this terrible weapon, died or broke and fled, leaving a gaping four-mile hole in the Allied line. The Canadians were the only division that were able to hold the line.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/firstwar/canada/Canada4 |title=Ypres 1915 – Veterans Affairs Canada |publisher=Vac-acc.gc.ca |date=2004-07-29 |access-date=2010-06-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123001034/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history%2Ffirstwar%2Fcanada%2Fcanada4 |archive-date=2007-11-23 }}</ref>

All through the night, the Canadians fought to close this gap. On 24 April, the Germans launched another poison gas attack, this time at the Canadian line.<ref name="Bergen2009"/> In those 48 hours of battle, the Canadians suffered over 6,000 casualties, one man in every three, of whom more than 2,000 died.<ref name="Bergen2009">{{cite book|author=Leo van Bergen|title=Before My Helpless Sight: Suffering, Dying and Military Medicine on the Western Front, 1914–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qR-mzZkvaMoC&pg=PA66|year=2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5853-5|page=66}}</ref>

===1916===
{{see also|Actions of St Eloi Craters|Battle of Mont Sorrel}}

====Battle of the Somme====
{{Main|Battle of the Somme}}

[[File:Kenneth Forbes-Canadian Artillery in Action (CWM 19710261-0142).jpeg|thumb|''Canadian Artillery in Action'' by [[Kenneth Forbes]]. It depicts gunners at their post while sustaining artillery fire during the [[Battle of the Somme]].]]
The next area where Canadians fought was at the [[Battle of the Somme]] from the latter half of 1916. Initially launched as a campaign to relieve pressure from the beleaguered French forces at the [[Battle of Verdun]], the Allied casualties actually exceeded those at Verdun.<ref name="Tucker2010">{{cite book|author=Spencer Tucker|title=Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wHpVn68GCogC&pg=PA423|year= 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-429-0|page=423}}</ref>
[[File:A Canadian Battalion in a bayonet charge on the Somme (I0004777).jpg|thumb|A battalion conducts a bayonet charge during the [[Battle of the Somme]].]]
The battle began on 1 July 1916, and among the first troops to leave their trenches were the men of the [[Royal Newfoundland Regiment]]. Newfoundland at the time was not a part of the Canadian confederation but was considered a [[Dominion of Newfoundland|separate dominion]]; as a result, the Newfoundlanders advanced as part of the 29th Division, not the Canadian Corps. The attack went very poorly for the Newfoundlanders, resulting in massive casualties – of the 801 men that made up the regiment just the day before, only 68 reported for roll call on 2 July, and every officer that had gone over the top had been killed.<ref name="Higonnet1999">{{cite book|author=Margaret R. Higonnet|title=Lines of fire: women writers of World War I|year=1999|publisher=Plume|isbn=978-0-452-28146-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/linesoffirewomen00higo/page/174 174]|url=https://archive.org/details/linesoffirewomen00higo/page/174}}</ref>

The Canadian Corps entered the battle in September when it was tasked to secure the small town of [[Courcelette]], France.<ref name="Miller2002">{{cite book|author=Ian Hugh Maclean Miller|title=Our Glory and Our Grief: Torontonians and the Great War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcIswfH9PT4C&pg=PA52|year=2002|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-3592-9|page=52}}</ref> In the major offensive which began at dawn on September 15 the Canadian Corps, on the extreme left of the attack, assaulted on a 2,200-yard sector west of the village of Courcelette. By November 11, the 4th Canadian Division finally secured most of the German trenches in Courcelette and then rejoined the Canadian Corps at Vimy Ridge.

The Battle of the Somme claimed more than 24,000 Canadian casualties.<ref name="HayesIarocci2007">{{cite book|author1=Geoffrey Hayes|author2=Andrew Iarocci|title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&pg=PA42|year=2007|publisher=Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press|isbn=978-0-88920-508-6|page=42}}</ref> But it also gave Canadian units the reputation of a formidable assault force. As [[British Prime Minister]] [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]] wrote, "The Canadians played a part of such distinction that thenceforward they were marked out as [[shock troops]]; for the remainder of the war they were brought along to head the assault in one great battle after another. Whenever the Germans found the Canadian Corps coming into the line they prepared for the worst."<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/firstwar/canada/Canada8 |title=1916 – Prelude to the Somme |work=Canada and the First World War |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060429223631/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history%2Ffirstwar%2Fcanada%2Fcanada8 |archive-date=2006-04-29 }}</ref>

===1917===
====Battle of Vimy Ridge====
{{Main|Battle of Vimy Ridge}}
[[File:Richard Jack-The Taking of Vimy Ridge (CWM 19710261-0160).jpg|thumb|''The Taking of Vimy Ridge, Easter Monday 1917'' by Richard Jack. The battle began with an artillery barrage.]]
For the first time, all four Canadian divisions were to be assembled to operate in combat as a corps. The Canadian divisions were joined by the British [[5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Division]], and reinforced by artillery, engineer and labour units.<ref name = "Nicholson 229">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} p. 229</ref> The Canadian Corps was supported to the north by the [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] which advanced north of the [[Souchez]] river and by the advancing XVII Corps to the south.<ref name="Turner 39">[[##Reference-Turner|Turner]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=##Reference-Turner|reason= }} p. 39</ref> The attack began at 5:43&nbsp;a.m. on [[Easter Monday]], 9 April 1917 whereupon every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing. Light field guns laid down a barrage which advanced in predetermined increments, often {{convert|100|yd|m}} every three minutes, while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead, against known defensive systems.<ref name="Cook 117">[[#Reference-Cook|Cook]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Cook|reason= }} p. 117</ref>
[[File:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg|thumb|Canadian soldiers advance behind a [[British heavy tanks of World War I#Mark II|Mark II heavy tank]] during the battle.]] 
The 1st, 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective, the Black Line, by 6:25&nbsp;a.m.<ref name="Nicholson 254">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 254</ref> The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble in its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later.<ref name="Nicholson 254"/> After a planned pause, in which positions were consolidated, the advance resumed. Shortly after 7:00&nbsp;a.m., the 1st Canadian Division had taken half of its second objective, the Red Line, and moved a brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder.<ref name="Nicholson 255">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} p. 255</ref> The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the town of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time.<ref name="Campbell 178-179">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Campbell|reason= }} pp. 178–179</ref> Units at the 3rd Canadian Division reached their section of the Red Line at around 7:30&nbsp;a.m.<ref name="Hayes 200">[[#Reference-Hayes|Hayes]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Hayes|reason= }} p. 200</ref> However, due to an exposed left flank caused by the failure of the 4th Canadian Division to capture the top of the ridge, the 3rd Canadian Division was forced to stop and establish a divisional defensive flank to its north.<ref name="Hayes 202-203">[[#Reference-Hayes|Hayes]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Hayes|reason= }} pp. 202–203</ref> It was not until 11:00&nbsp;a.m. that the defending German 79th Reserve Division mounted a counterattack, by which time only the 4th Canadian Division had not reached its objective.<ref name="Godefroy 231">[[#Reference-Godefroy 2|Godefroy]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Godefroy 2|reason= }} p. 231</ref>
[[File:Consolidating their positions on Vimy Ridge.jpg|thumb|Canadian infantry consolidate their positions at Vimy Ridge.]]
Three fresh brigades were moved up to the Red Line by 9:30&nbsp;a.m., 10 April to support the advance whereupon they leapfrogged existing units occupying the Red line and advanced to the Blue Line.<ref name="Campbell 179">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Campbell|reason= }} p. 179</ref> By approximately 11:00&nbsp;a.m., the Blue Line, including Hill 135 and the town of [[Thélus]], had been captured.<ref name="Campbell 179-181">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Campbell|reason= }} pp.179–181</ref> The advance briefly halted, the artillery barrage remaining stationary for 90 minutes to give troops time to consolidate the Blue Line and bring supporting machine guns forward.<ref name="Nicholson 257">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} p. 257</ref> Shortly before 1 p.m., the advance recommenced with the Brown Line being secure around 2:00&nbsp;p.m.<ref name="Campbell 182">[[#Reference-Campbell|Campbell]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Campbell|reason= }} p. 182</ref> By this point only the northern half of Hill 145 and "the Pimple", a fortified highpoint outside of [[Givenchy-en-Gohelle]], remained under German control. Fresh troops finally forced the remaining German troops from the northern half of Hill 145 at around 3:15&nbsp;p.m. and by nightfall of 10 April, the only objective not yet achieved was the capture of "the Pimple".<ref name="Godefroy 220">[[#Reference-Godefroy|Godefroy]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Godefroy|reason= }} p. 220</ref> Supported by a significant amount of artillery and the [[24th Division (United Kingdom)|24th British Division]] of [[I Corps (United Kingdom)|I Corps]] to the north, the 10th Canadian Brigade attacked the hastily entrenched German troops and captured "the Pimple" on 12 April, bringing an end to the battle.<ref name="Nicholson 263">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} p. 263</ref> By nightfall on 12 April 1917 the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge.

The corps had suffered 10,602 casualties; 3,598 killed and 7,004 wounded.<ref name="Moran 139">[[#Reference-Moran|Moran]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Moran|reason= }} p. 139</ref> The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with an approximate 4,000 men becoming [[prisoners of war]].<ref name="Gibbs">{{cite news |url= https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9904E2DE153AE433A25752C1A9629C946696D6CF |last=Gibbs |first=Philip |title=All of Vimy Ridge Cleared of Germans |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=1917-04-11 |access-date=2011-02-24}}</ref> Four [[Victoria Crosses]], the highest military decoration awarded to British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces for valour, were awarded.<ref name="Godefroy 233">[[#Reference-Godefroy 2|Godefroy]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Godefroy 2|reason= }} p. 233</ref> The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge, even in the [[German spring offensive|Spring Offensive]], and it remained under British control until the end of the war.

====Battle of Passchendaele====
{{Main|Second Battle of Passchendaele}}
[[File:Douglas W. Culham - Mud Road to Passchendaele.jpg|thumb|''Mud Road to Passchendaele'' by Douglas Culham. The painting depicts a nighttime supply column traversing the muddy conditions of the [[Second Battle of Passchendaele]].]]
The four divisions of the [[Canadian Corps]] were transferred to the [[Ypres Salient]] and tasked with making additional advances on Passchendaele.<ref name="Bean 929">[[#Reference-Bean|Bean]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Bean|reason= }} 929</ref> The Canadian Corps relieved [[II Anzac Corps]] on 18 October from their positions along the valley between Gravenstafel Ridge and the heights at Passchendaele.<ref name="nicholson 312">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 312</ref> It was virtually the same front as had been occupied by the [[1st Canadian Division]] in April 1915.<ref name="nicholson 312"/> The Canadian Corps operation was to be executed in series of three attacks each with limited objectives, delivered at intervals of three or more days. As the Canadian Corps position was directly south of the inter-army boundary between British Fifth and Second Army, the British Fifth Army would mount subsidiary operations on the Canadian Corps' left flank while the [[I Anzac Corps]] would advance to protect the right flank.<ref name="nicholson 314">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 314</ref> The execution dates of the phases were tentatively given as 26 October, 30 October and 6 November.<ref name="nicholson 314"/>
[[File:Second Battle of Passchendaele - laying trench mats.jpg|thumb|Canadian Pioneers laying trench mats over mud]]
The first stage began on the morning of 26 October.<ref name="Wolff 246">[[#Reference-Wolff|Wolff]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Wolff|reason= }} 246</ref> The 3rd Canadian Division was assigned the northern flank which included the sharply rising ground of the Bellevue spur. South of the Ravebeek creek, the 4th Canadian Division would take the Decline Copse which straddled the Ypres-Roulers railway.<ref name="nicholson 318">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 318</ref> The 3rd Canadian Division captured the Wolf Copse and secured its objective line but was ultimately forced to drop a defensive flank to link up with the flanking division of the British Fifth Army. The 4th Canadian Division initially captured all its objectives, but gradually retreated from the Decline Copse due to German counterattacks and mis-communications between the Canadian and Australian units to the south.<ref name="nicholson 320">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 320</ref>

The second stage began on 30 October and was intended to capture the positions not captured in the previous stage and gain a base for the final assault on Passchendaele.<ref name="nicholson 320"/> The southern flank was to capture the strongly held Crest Farm while the northern flank was to capture the hamlet of Meetcheele as well as the Goudberg area near the Canadian Corps' northern boundary.<ref name="nicholson 321">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 321</ref> The southern flank quickly captured Crest Farm and begun sending patrols beyond its objective line and into Passchendaele itself. The northern flank was again met with exceptional German resistance. The 3rd Canadian Division captured Vapour Farm at the corps' boundary, Furst Farm to the west of Meetcheele and the crossroads at Meetcheele, but remained short of its objective line.<ref name="nicholson 321"/>
[[File:Second Battle of Passchendaele - Bunker Survey (colour).jpg|thumb|Canadian soldiers survey a destroyed German bunker during the battle of Passchendaele.]]
To permit time to facilitate inter-divisional reliefs, there was a planned seven-day pause between the second and third stage. British Second Army was ordered to take over section of the British Fifth Army front adjoining the Canadian Corps, so that the central portion of the assault could proceed under a single command.<ref name="nicholson 323">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 323</ref> Three consecutive rainless days between 3 and 5 November aided logistical preparations and reorganization of the troops for the next stage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/ypres/content.asp?id=252&menu=subsub |title=:: CWGC:: The Ypres Salient |work=Second Passchendaele |publisher=[[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] |access-date=2009-02-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705195304/http://www.cwgc.org/ypres/content.asp?id=252&menu=subsub |archive-date=2009-07-05 }}</ref> The third stage began the morning of 6 November with the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions having taken over the front, relieving the 3rd and 4th Canadian Divisions respectively. Less than three hours after the start of the assault, many units had reached their final objective lines and the town of Passchendaele had been captured.

A final successful action to gain the remaining high ground north of the village in the vicinity of Hill 52 was launched 11 November.<ref name="nicholson 325">[[#Reference-Nicholson|Nicholson]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-09|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=#Reference-Nicholson|reason= }} 325</ref> This attack on 11 November brought to an end the long drawn-out Third Battle of Ypres. The Second Battle of Passchendaele cost the Canadian Corps 15,654 casualties with over 4 000 dead, in 16 days of fighting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/canada-europa/brussels/passchendaele/battle-en.asp |title=Welcome Page &#124; Page d'accueil |publisher=Dfait-maeci.gc.ca |access-date=2010-06-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081106095040/http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/canada-europa/brussels/passchendaele/battle-en.asp |archive-date=2008-11-06 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Saturday, 22 August 2009 Michael Duffy |url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/cef.htm |title=Feature Articles – The Canadian Expeditionary Force: Central Ontario Regiment |publisher=First World War.com |date=2009-08-22 |access-date=2010-06-30}}</ref>

===1918===
{{see also|German spring offensive}}

====Hundred Days Offensive====
{{Main|Hundred Days Offensive|Canada's Hundred Days}}
Throughout these three final months, the Canadian troops saw action in several areas. The first was near the enemy salient on August 8 where the Canadian Corps (along with the New Zealanders, Australians, French and British) was charged with the task of spearheading the assault on the German forces in Amiens. In the subsequent battle, the morale of the German forces was badly shaken. In [[Erich Ludendorff|Ludendorff]]'s words, the [[Battle of Arras (1918)|battle of Arras]] was a "black day for the German army."<ref name="Gunn2013">{{cite book|author=Roger Gunn|title=Raymond Collishaw and the Black Flight|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uj1iOrlD5sAC&pg=PA190|year=2013|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-4597-0660-6|pages=190–}}</ref> After their [[Battle of Amiens (1918)|breakthrough at Amiens]], the Canadians were shifted back to [[Arras]] and given the task of cracking the [[Hindenburg Line]] in the Arras area.
[[File:Canadian troops on Arras- Cambrai road-1918.jpg|left|thumb|Canadian troops shelter in a ditch during the [[Battle of Cambrai (1918)|Battle of Cambrai]].]]
Between August 26 and September 2, the Canadian Corps launched multiple attacks near the German front at [[Battle of Canal du Nord|Canal du Nord]]. On September 27, 1918, the Canadian Corps broke through the Hindenburg Line by smashing through a dry section of the Canal du Nord.<ref name="Heathcote2012">{{cite book|author=T. A. Heathcote|title=Dictionary of Field Marshals of the British Army|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KAkkUN7s4TIC&pg=PT118|year=2012|publisher=Casemate Publishers|isbn=978-1-78346-141-7|page=118}}</ref> The operation ended in triumph on October 11, 1918, when the Canadian forces drove the Germans out of their main distribution centre in the [[Battle of Cambrai (1918)|Battle of Cambrai]]. The corps carried on to swift successes at [[Battle of the Selle|Denain]] and [[Battle of Valenciennes (1918)|Valenciennes]] and on the final day of the war  marched successfully to [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]].

Though incredibly successful, this period was also very costly, as the Canadian Corps suffered 46,000 casualties in the final hundred days of the Great War. The last [[Canadians|Canadian]] to be killed was [[Private (rank)|Private]] [[George Lawrence Price]], two minutes before the armistice took effect at 11&nbsp;am. on November 11.<ref name="Sharpe2009">{{cite book|author=Robert J. Sharpe|title=The Last Day, The Last Hour: The Currie Libel Trial|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdJ69Wg_j9oC&pg=PT32|year=2009|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-1-4426-9725-6|page=32}}</ref> He is traditionally recognized as being the last British soldier and second last soldier killed in [[World War I]].<ref name="Sharpe2009"/>

==Atlantic campaign==
{{Further|Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I}}
{{See also|History of the Royal Canadian Navy|List of Royal Canadian Navy ships of the First World War}}
[[File:HMCS Margaret CN-3226.jpg|thumb|[[CGS Margaret|HMCS ''Margaret'']], {{circa|1914–18}}. The government vessel was pressed into naval service at the outbreak of war.]]
At the outbreak of the First World War on 5 August 1914, two government vessels, CGS ''Canada'' (renamed {{HMCS|Canada}}) and [[CGS Margaret|CGS ''Margaret'']], were immediately pressed into naval service, joining {{HMCS|Niobe}}, {{HMCS|Rainbow|1891|6}} and the two submarines {{HMCS|CC-1}} and {{HMCS|CC-2}}, to form the core of the naval force. At this point, the governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Canada]] were planning to significantly expand the RCN, but it was decided that Canadian men would be permitted to enlist in either the Royal Navy or its Canadian counterpart, with many choosing the former.

During the fall of 1914, HMCS ''Rainbow'' patrolled the west coast of [[North America]], as far south as [[Panama]], although these patrols became less important following the elimination of the German naval threat in the Pacific with the December 1914 defeat of Admiral [[Maximilian von Spee]]'s [[East Asia Squadron]] off the [[Falkland Islands]].<ref>Marc Milner, "[http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2004/05/the-original-rainbow-warrior/ The Original Rainbow Warrior: Navy, Part 3] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011143957/http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2004/05/the-original-rainbow-warrior |date=2008-10-11 }}", ''Legion Magazine'', 1 May 2004. Accessed 6 May 2010.</ref>  Many of ''Rainbow''{{'}}s crew were posted to the east coast for the remainder of the war and by 1917 ''Rainbow'' was withdrawn from service.<ref>Marc Milner, "[http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2005/01/menace-below-the-surface/ Menace Below The Surface: Navy, Part 7] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325090531/http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2005/01/menace-below-the-surface/ |date=2012-03-25 }}", ''Legion Magazine'', 1 January 2005. Accessed 6 May 2010.</ref>
[[File:HMCS Niobe contraband inspection E-002713271.jpg|thumb|left|{{HMCS|Niobe}} stops a liner for contraband inspection off the American coast, 1914–1915]]
The early part of the war also saw HMCS ''Niobe'' actively patrolling off the coast of [[New York City]] as part of British [[Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)|blockading]] forces, but she returned to Halifax permanently in July 1915 when she was declared no longer fit for service and was converted to a depot ship.  She was heavily damaged in the December 1917 [[Halifax Explosion]].<ref>Marc Milner "[http://www.legionmagazine.com/en/index.php/2004/09/niobes-brief-operational-career/ Niobe’s Brief Operational Career: Navy, Part 5]", ''Legion Magazine'', 1 September 2004. Accessed 6 May 2010.</ref>

''CC-1'' and ''CC-2'' spent the first three years of the war patrolling the Pacific; however, the lack of German threat saw them reposted to Halifax in 1917.  With their tender, [[HMS Shearwater (1900)|HMCS ''Shearwater'']], they became the first warships to transit the [[Panama Canal]] flying the [[White Ensign]] (the RCN's service flag).  Arriving in Halifax on 17 October 1917, they were declared unfit for service and never patrolled again, being scrapped in 1920.

In June 1918, the Canadian [[hospital ship]] {{ship|HMHS|Llandovery Castle||6}} was deliberately sunk by a U-boat which machine gunned survivors on the water.  In terms of the number of dead, the sinking was  [[List of maritime disasters|the most significant Canadian naval disaster]] of the First World War.

On 5 September 1918, the [[Royal Canadian Naval Air Service]] (RCNAS) was formed with a main function to carry out anti-submarine operations using [[flying boat]] patrol aircraft.  The [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy's]] [[Naval Air Station Halifax]], on the eastern shores of the harbour at [[Eastern Passage, Nova Scotia]], was acquired but following the [[Armistice with Germany|November 11, 1918 Armistice]], the RCNAS was discontinued.<ref>J.D.F. Kealey and E.C. Russell, [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=37''A History of Canadian Naval Aviation, 1918–1962''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111023114508/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=37 |date=2011-10-23 }}, (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1967), 1–10. Retrieved 6 May 2010.</ref>

==Home Front==
{{Campaignbox American Theatre of WWI}}

===Conscription===
{{Main|Conscription Crisis of 1917}}
[[File:Anti-conscription parade at Victoria Square.jpg|thumb|An anti-conscription parade in Montreal on May 17, 1917]]
The underlying tension between French and British Canada came to national attention during World War I.<ref name="Hayes2008">{{cite book|author=Derek Hayes|title=Canada: An Illustrated History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hrkq7t_4080C&pg=PA209|year=2008|publisher=Douglas & McIntyre|isbn=978-1-55365-259-5|page=209}}</ref> Prior to the war, the French Canadians did not see themselves obliged to serve the British interests. The issue reached its zenith when Canadian Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] introduced the [[Military Service Act (Canada)|Canadian Military Service Act of 1917]].<ref name="Heron1998">{{cite book|author=Craig Heron|title=The Workers' Revolt in Canada, 1917–1925|url=https://archive.org/details/workersrevoltinc0000hero|url-access=registration|year=1998|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8082-0|page=[https://archive.org/details/workersrevoltinc0000hero/page/122 122]}}</ref> Although some farmers and factory workers opposed the legislation, it was in [[Quebec]] where conscription was most vociferously denounced.<ref name="KeshenPerrier2005">{{cite book|author1=Jeff Keshen|author2=Sylvie Perrier|title=Building New Bridges: Sources, Methods, and Interdisciplinarity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OIFPkFh3x4C&pg=PA174|year=2005|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=978-0-7766-0593-7|page=174}}</ref> Leading the campaign against conscription was Quebec nationalist [[Henri Bourassa]] and [[Sir Wilfrid Laurier]], who argued that the war pitted Canadians against each other.<ref name="HornLegault2007">{{cite book|author1=Bernd Horn|author2=Roch Legault|title=Loyal Service: Perspectives on French-Canadian Military Leaders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7Y-4UjVW8gC&pg=PA207|year=2007|publisher=Dundurn|isbn=978-1-55002-693-1|page=207}}</ref> In the subsequent [[1917 Canadian federal election|election of 1917]], Borden was able to convince enough English-speaking Liberals to vote for his party, and the [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Union government]] won 153 seats, nearly all from English Canada. The Liberals won 82 seats. Although the Union government won a large majority of seats, the Union government won only 3 seats in Quebec.

Of the 96,000 conscripts listed on strength with the CEF, 47,589 were sent overseas and 24,132 had joined units in France. They arrived in time to aid the rebuilding and reorganization of the Canadian Corps and through the Hundred Days campaign.<ref>{{cite magazine|magazine=[[Canada's History]]|title=1918: Year of the Conscript|first=Patrick M.|last=Dennis|date=1 April 2018|url=https://www.pressreader.com/canada/canada-s-history/20180401/281522226622753}}</ref> Despite this, the rift between French- and English-speaking Canadians was indelible and lasted for many years.

===Indian nationalists===
{{Main|Komagata Maru incident}}
[[File:Komagata Maru and Rainbow.jpg|thumb|''Komagata Maru'' (left background) being escorted by {{HMCS|Rainbow|1891|6}} and a swarm of small boats, 1914]]

[[Indian nationalism|Indian nationalists]] grouped around the [[Ghadar Party]] had been active in Canada for some time, and were involved in the [[Komagata Maru incident|''Komagata Maru'' incident]], when the {{SS|Komagata Maru}}, a ship [[Chartering (shipping)|chartered]] by Indian immigrants and nationalists was turned around by the Canadian authorities. Upon returning to India, a mixed force of police and soldiers confronted them on September 27, 1914 in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], which resulted in a riot that killed 19 passengers.<ref>The Bengalee, October 03, 1914</ref> Prior to the departure of ''Komagata Maru'', in mid-July local Ghadarite, Mewa Singh, was arrested while re-entering Canada from [[Sumas, Washington]] for attempting to bring weapons into Canada. [[William C. Hopkinson]], who had worked as a policeman in India, had infiltrated the Ghadar Party to help to secure his release with a minor fine. Following the murder of two of Hopkinson's informants in the Ghadar Party, Bela Singh, was put on trial in Vancouver. On October 21, 1914, while Hopkinson was waiting outside a courtroom, he was assassinated by Mewa Singh.<ref>{{cite book |last=Popplewell |first=Richard J |year=1995 |title=Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire 1904–1924 |url=http://www.routledge.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=&isbn=071464580X&parent_id=&pc= |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-7146-4580-X |access-date=2013-06-02 |archive-date=2009-03-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326193437/http://www.routledge.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=&isbn=071464580X&parent_id=&pc= |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Saboteurs===
From the start of the war, the Canadian government investigated many rumours of a large German attack across the [[Canada–United States border]]. While most of the rumours were false, Germany did consider several plans to damage Britain by attacking Canada from the United States. One proposal intended to use 100,000 German military reservists allegedly living in North America, who would join 250,000 [[German Americans]] and 300,000 anti-British [[Irish Americans]]. To maintain secrecy, the army of 650,000 would dress as [[cowboy]]s; the [[German Foreign Office|foreign office]]'s lawyers ruled that a cowboy costume would not be considered a [[military uniform]] under international law. Amazingly, the German government did not reject the proposal because of the impracticality, but because it did not wish to damage relations with the United States by violating American neutrality.<ref name="kitchen198505">{{cite journal |jstor= 40105462 |title=The German Invasion of Canada in the First World War |last=Kitchen |first=Martin |journal=The International History Review |date=May 1985 |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=245–260}}</ref>
[[File:McAdam055.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Saint Croix–Vanceboro Railway Bridge|Vanceboro International Bridge]] after the [[1915 Vanceboro international bridge bombing|bombing]] in 1915.]]
Taken more seriously was the proposal to sabotage trains carrying Japanese troops which, the [[German General Staff]] and foreign office were convinced, would soon arrive in France through Canada. Despite [[German Ambassador to the United States]] [[Johann Heinrich von Bernstorff]]'s disbelief in Japan sending troops to the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]], foreign office undersecretary [[Arthur Zimmermann]] ordered him to prepare with the embassy's military attaché [[Franz von Papen]] plans to attack the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]. Von Papen identified several bridges and tunnels in western Canada as targets, but was advised to wait until the Japanese appeared. His agent, a Captain Böhm, recruited 10 people to enter Canada from [[Maine]] and blow up five eastern bridges, but cancelled the mission after only three appeared at the rendezvous point and agreed to the plan.{{r|kitchen198505}}

One who did not appear, Werner Horn, thus did not know that the mission was cancelled. In the [[Vanceboro international bridge bombing]], Horn exploded some dynamite but failed to greatly damage the bridge. Von Papen next formed groups of German reservists in several American cities to attack Canadian bridges and, if the Japanese took the [[Panama Canal]], its [[lock (water transport)|lock]]s. The saboteurs did not have uniforms, however, and the general staff told the foreign office on 11 February 1915 that wearing [[cockade]]s and [[armband]]s would not protect them from being shot as ''[[francs-tireurs]]''. This news discouraged the volunteers and ended the mission. The German government continued to create such plans, however, resulting in the [[Zimmermann Telegram]].{{r|kitchen198505}}

===Women===
{{Main|Canadian women in the World Wars}}
[[File:Canadian nurses voting 1917.jpg|thumb|On Sept. 20, 1917, women gained a limited right to vote. The nursing sisters at the Canadian hospital in France were among the first group of women to vote in any general election]]
During the First World War Canadian women took part in the war in a variety of ways, including home from factory work, fundraising and serving as nurses overseas.  These women had a large impact on the war effort both from home and on the front lines. Others worked to support soldiers. They volunteered to knit socks, roll bandages, and wrap food parcels for the troops. Women put on variety shows and used the money to buy supplies that were needed overseas. The shortage of men made it necessary for women to work outside the home. They often took jobs that were known as men's work. They worked in banks, insurance firms, civil service, and as gas jockeys, street-car conductors and fish cannery workers. Even though they performed the same jobs as men, they were paid less. When prime minister [[Robert Borden]] ordered compulsory military service in May 1917, many women were called upon to run farms, build aircraft and ships, and work in munitions factories. By the end of the war they had earned the right to vote, and were gaining independence in society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/those-who-served/women-and-war/history/military |title=Canada Remembers Women in the Canadian Military |publisher=Veterans Affairs Canada |year=2014 |access-date=Feb 11, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222211535/http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/those-who-served/women-and-war/history/military |archive-date=2014-02-22 }}</ref>

==Influence on Canada==
===National identity===
[[File:This is Your Flag.jpg|thumb|A recruitment poster for the [[207th (Ottawa-Carleton) Battalion, CEF]], with the [[Union Flag]].]]
The impact of the First World War on the evolution of Canada's identity is debated by historians. There is general agreement that in the early twentieth century, most [[English-speaking Canada|English-speaking Canadians]] saw no conflict between their identity as British subjects and their identities as Canadians. In fact, the British World or [[British Empire]] identity was a key part of the [[Canadian identity]]. Many Canadians defined their country as the part of North America that owed allegiance to the [[British Crown]]. Historian [[Carl Berger (writer)|Carl Berger]] showed that there were relatively few dissenters from this view in English-speaking Canada. In 1914, most English-speaking Canadians had a hybrid [[British Empire|imperial]]-national identity.<ref>{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Carl |year=1969 |title=Imperialism and nationalism, 1884–1914: a conflict in Canadian thought |location=Toronto |publisher=Copp Clark Pub. Co|isbn=0773031081}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Berger |first=Carl |year=1970 |title=The sense of power : studies in the ideas of Canadian imperialism, 1867–1914 |url=https://archive.org/details/senseofpowerstud00berg |url-access=registration |location=Toronto |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=9780802061133 }}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

Other historians add that Canadian nationalism and belief in independence from the British Empire was strongest in [[French Canada]], whereas imperialism was strongest in English-speaking Canada. These historians focus on [[Henri Bourassa]], who resigned from [[Wilfrid Laurier]]’s cabinet to protest the decision to send Canadian troops to fight in the [[South African War]]. Bourassa’s resignation is widely regarded as involving a clash between imperialism and Canadian nationalism.<ref>{{cite thesis |first=Martin P |last=O'Connell |year=1954 |title=Henri Bourassa and Canadian nationalism |location=Toronto, ON |publisher=University of Toronto }}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

Some historians suggest that Canada was already beginning to move toward greater autonomy from Britain well before 1914. They note that Canada’s government established a [[Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade|Department of External Affairs]], or de facto foreign ministry, in 1909. However, these historians also stress that the Department worked closely with British diplomats.<ref>{{cite book |first=F.H. |last=Soward |title=The Department of External Affairs and Canadian Autonomy, 1899-1939/Le ministère des Affaires extérieures et l'autonomie canadienne, 1899–1939 }}</ref> Historian [[Oscar Skelton]] noted that [[Alexander Galt]], a Canadian government official, negotiated treaties with foreign countries such as Spain and France in the 1880s with only the token participation of British diplomats. These negotiations were precedents followed by Canadian diplomats after 1919, when Canada began to conduct its foreign relations without the involvement of British officials. In other words, Canada's gradual move towards independence was already underway before 1914, although this process may have been accelerated by World War I.<ref>{{cite book |first=Oscar |last=Skelton |year=1920 |title=The Life and Times of Alexander Tilloch Galt |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeandtimessir00skelgoog |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] }}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Vimy Memorial (September 2010) cropped.jpg|thumb|left|[[Canadian National Vimy Memorial]], is a [[war memorial]] on the site of the Battle of Vimy Ridge. Canadian media has occasionally referred to the battle as marking "the birth of a nation".]]
While there is a consensus that on the eve of World War I, most White English-speaking Canadians had a hybrid imperial-national identity, the effects of the war on Canada's emergence as a nation are contested. The Canadian media often refer to World War I and, in particular, the Battle of Vimy Ridge, as marking "the birth of a nation."<ref>Nersessian, Mary (April 9, 2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090215182932/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070402/vimy_90years_070402 Vimy battle marks birth of Canadian nationalism]. CTV.ca</ref> Some historians consider the First World War to be Canada's "war of independence"<ref>[[Tim Cook (writer)|Cook, Tim]] (2008). ''Shock Troops: Canadians fighting the Great War, 1917–1918.''  Toronto: Viking.</ref> and the most important event in Canadian history, ahead of World War II and comparable in effect to the [[American Civil War]] on the United States.<ref name="stacey1981">{{cite book |title=The Second World War as a National Experience: Canada |publisher=The Canadian Committee for the History of the Second World War, Department of National Defence |last=Stacey |first=C.P. |author-link=Charles Perry Stacey |year=1981 |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/UN/Canada/Natl_Exp/index.html |pages=22}}</ref> They argue that the war reduced the extent to which Canadians identified with the British Empire and intensified their sense of being Canadians first and British subjects second. These historians posit two possible mechanisms whereby World War I intensified [[Canadian nationalism]], that pride in Canada's accomplishments on the battlefield promoted Canadian patriotism; and that the war distanced Canada from Britain in that Canadians reacted to the sheer slaughter on the Western Front by adopting an increasingly anti-British attitude.

Other historians robustly dispute the view that World War I undermined the hybrid imperial-national identity of English-speaking Canada. Phillip Buckner writes that: "The First World War shook but did not destroy this Britannic vision of Canada. It is a [[myth]] that Canadians emerged from the war alienated from, and disillusioned with, the imperial connection." He argues that most English-speaking Canadians  "continued to believe that Canada was, and should continue to be, a "British" nation and that it should cooperate with the other members of the British family in the [[British Commonwealth of Nations]]."<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Buckner |editor-first=Philip |year=2006 |title=Canada and the British World: Culture, Migration, and Identity |location=Vancouver, BC |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |page=1}}</ref> Historian Pat Brennan has shown that the war ''strengthened'' Canadian officers' British identity as well as their Canadian identity.<ref>{{cite book |first=Patrick H |last=Brennan |year=2005 |chapter=The Other Battle: Imperialist versus nationalist sympathies within the Officer Corps of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1919 |editor1-first=Phillip |editor1-last=Buckner |editor2-first=R. Douglas |editor2-last=Francis |title=Rediscovering the British World |location=Calgary |publisher=Calgary University Press |page=261}}</ref>

Still other historians point out that the war’s impact on Canadians’ perception of their place in the world was limited by the simple fact that so many of the Canadian Expeditionary Force soldiers were British-born rather than Canadians. Geoffrey Hayes, Andrew Iarocci, and Mike Bechthold point out that about half of the CEF members who fought at the famous battle of Vimy Ridge were British immigrants.  Moreover, their victory at the ridge involved close cooperation with artillery and other units recruited in the British Isles.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Geoffrey |last2=Iarocci |first2=Andrew |last3=Bechthold |first3=Mike |year=2007 |title=Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment |location=Waterloo |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn=978-0-88920-508-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref> 70 percent of the men who enlisted in the CEF were British immigrants, even though British immigrants were just 11 percent of Canada's population. Anglo-Saxon Canadians whose ancestors had lived in North America for generations had low enlistment rates similar to those seen in French Canadian communities.<ref>{{cite book |first=Desmond |last=Morton |title=When Your Number's Up: the Canadian Soldier in the First World War |location=Toronto |publisher=Vintage Canada |isbn=0-394-22288-1|url=https://archive.org/details/whenyournumbersu0000mort}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

Historian José Igartua argues that the hybrid imperialist-nationalist identity in English Canada collapsed in the 1950s and 1960s, not during or immediately after the First World War. It was in this period that Canada adopted [[flag of Canada|its current flag]] and began to oppose Britain on substantive foreign policy issues, as it did in the 1956 Suez Crisis.<ref>{{cite book |first=José E |last=Igartua |year=2006 |title=The other quiet revolution : national identities in English Canada, 1945–71 |location=Vancouver |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]] }}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref> Historian C.P. Champion argues that Canada's Britishness was not eliminated in the 1960s but survives to the present day in more subtle forms. He cites the new flag, whose red and white echo the colours of England and Kingston's Royal Military College.<ref>{{cite book |first=C.P. |last=Champion |year=2010 |title=The Strange Demise of British Canada |location=Montreal-Kingston |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |isbn=978-0-7735-3690-6}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref>

===Art and literature===
*"[[In Flanders Fields]]" by Canadian Expeditionary Force member [[John McCrae]] may be the best-known poem among Canadians. Written after the Second Battle of Ypres, it and the [[remembrance poppy]] it inspired have become symbols of [[Remembrance Day]] throughout the Commonwealth.<ref name="BreakingFaith">{{citation |last=Holmes |first=Nancy |url=http://journals.hil.unb.ca/index.php/scl/article/view/15269/16346 |title="In Flanders Fields" — Canada's official poem: breaking faith |journal=Studies in Canadian Literature |publisher=University of New Brunswick |year=2005 |volume=30 |issue=1 |access-date=2012-02-11}}</ref>
*''[[Rilla of Ingleside]]'' (1921), the next-to-last book in [[Lucy Maud Montgomery]]'s [[Anne of Green Gables]] series, uses the war as a backdrop.  The book chronicles the experiences of Anne and her family at home in Canada in the war while waiting for the return of Anne's three sons, all of whom are fighting overseas. The book is the only contemporary novel about the war from the perspective of Canadian women.

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
*[[Canadian pipers in World War I]]
*[[Canadian war memorials]]
*[[List of Canadian battles during the First World War|List of Canadian battles during World War I]]
*[[List of Canadian soldiers executed during World War I]]
*[[List of Canadian Victoria Cross recipients]]
*[[History of the Royal Canadian Navy]]
* [[History of Canadian foreign relations]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Official bibliography==
;National Defence and the Canadian Forces
{{Refbegin}}
*Brereton Greenhous; Stephen J. Harris (1992) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/ch-hc/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=70 Canada And The Battle Of Vimy Ridge, 9–12 April 1917] Minister Supply and Service (Downloadable PDF)  {{ISBN|0-660-93654-2}}
*Duguid, A.F, (1938) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=41 Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War, 1914–1919, Vol I Part I] King's Printer, Ottawa, (Downloadable PDF)
*Duguid, A.F, (1938) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=43 Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War, 1914–1919, Vol I Part 2] King's Printer, Ottawa, (Downloadable PDF)
*[[Nicholson, G.W.L.]] (1964) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=22 Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War: Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808060438/http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=22 |date=2014-08-08 }}, Duhamel, Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF)
*Macphail, Sir Andrew (1925) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=49 Official History of the Canadian Forces in the Great War: The Medical Services], F.A. Acland, King's Printer, Ottawa  (Downloadable PDF)
*Ministry of Overseas Military Forces (1919) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=65 Report of the Ministry Overseas Military Forces of Canada – 1918], London : H.M. Stationery Office (Downloadable PDF)
*Snell, A.E. (1924) [http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=48 The C.A.M.C. with the Canadian Corps during the Last Hundred Days of the Great War], F.A. Acland, King's Printer, Ottawa (Downloadable PDF)
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of Canadian military history}}
{{Refbegin}}
*{{citation | title= Victory at Vimy: Canada Comes of Age, April 9–12, 1917|last=Barris|first=Ted|author-link=Ted Barris|year=2007| publisher=Thomas Allen Publishers|location=Toronto|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_6972/is_1_14/ai_n28430233/|isbn=978-0-88762-253-3}}
*{{citation | last = Bechthold|first = Mike| year = 2007| contribution = In the Shadow of Vimy Ridge: The Canadian Corps in April and May 1917| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| location = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =239–264|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&q=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA239| isbn = 978-0-88920-508-6}}
* {{citation |last1 =Brown |first1 = Robert Craig | first2=David Clark |last2=MacKenzie|year =2005 |title =Canada and the First World War: essays in honour of Robert Craig Brown
  |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=iqtjsLl292oC&q=Canada%20during%20world%20war&pg=PP1 |publisher= University of Toronto Press |isbn=0-8020-3573-6  }}
*{{citation | last = Campbell| first = David| year = 2007| contribution = The 2nd Canadian Division: A 'Most Spectacular Battle'| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| location = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =171–192|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&q=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA171| isbn = 978-0-88920-508-6}}
*Busch, Briton Cooper (2003), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LLKqAyUl6TAC&dq=Canada%20World%20War&pg=PP1 Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association papers]'',  McGill-Queen's University Press {{ISBN|0-7735-2546-7}}
* Cassar, George H (2010), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=m7p4L0fVRBAC&dq=Beyond%20courage%3A%20the%20Canadians%20at%20the%20Second%20Battle%20of%20Ypres&pg=PP1 Hell in Flanders Fields: Canadians at the Second Battle of Ypres]'', Dundurn Press {{ISBN|978-1-55488-728-6}}
* {{citation |last = Cook |first =Tim|author-link=Tim Cook (writer)|year =1999 |title =No Place to Run: The Canadian Corps and Gas Warfare in the First World War |url =https://books.google.com/books?id=RCMXjVpj9xYC&q=inauthor%3A%22Tim%20Cook%22&pg=PP1 |publisher= UBC Press|isbn= 0-7748-0739-3
 }}
* {{citation |last1 =Freeman |first1 =Bill  |first2= Richard |last2=Nielsen |year =1998 |title = Far from home: Canadians in the First World War|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=aNyxkdPOWI0C&q=Canada%20and%20wwi&pg=PP1 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Ryerson |isbn= 0-07-086118-8
}}
*{{citation |last = Godefroy|first = Andrew| author-link=Andrew Godefroy| year = 2007a| contribution = The 4th Canadian Division: 'Trenches Should Never be Saved'| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| location = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =211–224|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&q=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA212| isbn = 978-0-88920-508-6}}
* Granatstein, J. L. (2004), ''[https://archive.org/details/hellscornerillus0000gran <!-- quote=4th Canadian Division. --> Hell's corner : an illustrated history of Canada's Great War, 1914–1918]'',  Douglas & McIntyre {{ISBN|1-55365-047-6}}
* {{citation |last = Hayes|first = Geoffrey| year = 2007| contribution = The 3rd Canadian Division: Forgotten Victory| editor-last = Hayes| editor-first = Geoffrey| editor2-last = Iarocci| editor2-first = Andrew| editor3-last = Bechthold| editor3-first = Mike| title = Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment| location = Waterloo| publisher = Wilfrid Laurier University Press| pages =193–210|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf5y7sehRwAC&q=Vimy%20Ridge%3A%20A%20Canadian%20Reassessment&pg=PA193| isbn = 978-0-88920-508-6}}
* Kordan, Bohdan S. (2002), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=9c0q-nTCr8sC&dq=Canada%20World%20War&pg=PP1 Enemy aliens, prisoners of war: internment in Canada during the Great War]'', McGill-Queen's University Press {{ISBN|0-7735-2350-2}}
* Turner, Alexander (2005), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=V-yWVYKX8zcC&dq=canadian%20army&pg=PP1 Vimy Ridge 1917: Byng's Canadians Triumph at Arras]'' Osprey Publ {{ISBN|1841768715}}

===Historiography===
* Shoebottom, Brad. "The First World War and the Homefront in Canada: Broadening the Analysis." ''Acadiensis: Journal of the History of the Atlantic Region/Revue d'histoire de la region atlantique'' 50.1 (2021): 149-163.

{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Canada in World War I}}
* [http://biographi.ca/en/theme_first_world_war.html?p=1 First World War at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography'']
* J. L. Granatstein: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/canada/ Canada], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html/ 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Oliver, Dean F.: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/warfare_1914-1918_canada Warfare 1914-1918 (Canada)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*Wood, James A.: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/pre-war_military_planning_canada Pre-war Military Planning (Canada)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Iarocci, Andrew: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/science_and_technology_canada Science and Technology (Canada)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*Sharpe, Christopher: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/recruitment_and_conscription_canada Recruitment and Conscription (Canada)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Cook, Tim, Stewart, William: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/war_losses_canada War Losses (Canada)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* Marti, Steve: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/dominions_military_relationship_to_great_britain_1902-1914_british_dominions Dominions’ Military Relationship to Great Britain 1902-1914 (British Dominions)], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home.html 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/firstworldwar/index-e.html Canada and the First World War: 1914–1918] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160311180847/http://collectionscanada.ca/firstworldwar/index-e.html |date=2016-03-11 }} at Library and Archives Canada
*  [https://web.archive.org/web/20181220162929/http://acitygoestowar.ca/ A City Goes to War] – Canadian Cities during the Great War.  This University of Victoria site currently includes data on Victoria BC.
* [http://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/remembrance/history/first-world-war Canada and WWI] – Canada and World War I.
* {{cite web|year=1992 |url=http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history/firstwar/vimy |title=Canada in the First World War and the Road to Vimy Ridge |publisher=Veteran Affairs Canada |access-date=2006-12-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027192324/http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/general/sub.cfm?source=history%2Ffirstwar%2Fvimy |archive-date=2006-10-27 }}
* [https://dr.library.brocku.ca/handle/10464/9283 Percy Carruthers Band fonds RG 562] Brock University Library Digital Repository
* [http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/ww1/index.aspx Resources Related to World War I] at the Archives of Ontario
* [https://montrealatwar.com Montreal At War - A History of Montreal During the First World War]

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[[Category:Military history of Canada during World War I| ]]
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[[Category:Canada in the world wars and interwar period]]
[[Category:Military history of Canada|World War 01]]
[[Category:Canadian Militia]]

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CFAV Caribou (PCT 57) (edit)
CFAV Cougar (PCT 61) (edit)
CFAV Grizzly (PCT 60) (edit)
CFAV Moose (PCT 62) (edit)
CFAV Orca (PCT 55) (edit)
CFAV Raven (PCT 56) (edit)
CFAV Renard (PCT 58) (edit)
CFAV Wolf (PCT 59) (edit)
HMCS Brandon (MM 710) (edit)
HMCS Brunswicker (edit)
HMCS CC-1 (edit)
HMCS CC-2 (edit)
HMCS Cabot (edit)
HMCS Calgary (FFH 335) (edit)
HMCS Canada (edit)
HMCS Carleton (edit)
HMCS Cataraqui (edit)
HMCS Champlain (edit)
HMCS Charlottetown (FFH 339) (edit)
HMCS Chicoutimi (SSK 879) (edit)
HMCS Chippawa (edit)
HMCS Corner Brook (SSK 878) (edit)
HMCS Discovery (edit)
HMCS Donnacona (edit)
HMCS Edmonton (MM 703) (edit)
HMCS Fredericton (FFH 337) (edit)
HMCS Glace Bay (MM 701) (edit)
HMCS Goose Bay (MM 707) (edit)
HMCS Griffon (edit)
HMCS Halifax (FFH 330) (edit)
HMCS Harry DeWolf (edit)
HMCS Hunter (edit)
HMCS Jolliet (edit)
HMCS Kingston (MM 700) (edit)
HMCS Malahat (edit)
HMCS Margaret Brooke (edit)
HMCS Max Bernays (edit)
HMCS Moncton (MM 708) (edit)
HMCS Montcalm (edit)
HMCS Montréal (FFH 336) (edit)
HMCS Nanaimo (MM 702) (edit)
HMCS Niobe (edit)
HMCS Nonsuch (edit)
HMCS Ottawa (FFH 341) (edit)
HMCS Prevost (edit)
HMCS Queen (edit)
HMCS Queen Charlotte (edit)
HMCS Radisson (edit)
HMCS Rainbow (1891) (edit)
HMCS Regina (FFH 334) (edit)
HMCS Saskatoon (MM 709) (edit)
HMCS Scotian (edit)
HMCS Shawinigan (MM 704) (edit)
HMCS St. John's (FFH 340) (edit)
HMCS Star (edit)
HMCS Summerside (MM 711) (edit)
HMCS Tecumseh (edit)
HMCS Toronto (FFH 333) (edit)
HMCS Unicorn (edit)
HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331) (edit)
HMCS Victoria (SSK 876) (edit)
HMCS Ville de Québec (FFH 332) (edit)
HMCS Whitehorse (MM 705) (edit)
HMCS William Hall (edit)
HMCS Windsor (SSK 877) (edit)
HMCS Winnipeg (FFH 338) (edit)
HMCS Yellowknife (MM 706) (edit)
HMCS York (edit)
HMCS d'Iberville (edit)
HMHS Llandovery Castle (edit)
MV Asterix (edit)
SS Komagata Maru (edit)
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Return to Canada in World War I.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_in_World_War_I"