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Franco Luambo is often credited for popularizing and revolutionizing sebene.[1]

Sebene, also known as seben, is an instrumental section commonly played in Congolese rumba.[2][3] It is usually played towards the end of the song and is the dancing section where the lead and rhythm guitars take the lead in the dance.[4][5][6][7] It is characterized by the repetition of a specific number of notes during the passage of second chords: one major chord and one-seventh chord, which gives rise to the Lingala derivation "sebene," derived from the English numeral "seven" or its ordinal rendition.[8]

Guitarists use a combination of lead and rhythm guitar to produce a distinct sound that is accompanied by vocalists, including an atalaku who energetically engages the audience and may call out to sponsors.[9][10][11] The use of arpeggios, rapid chord changes, atalaku, and melodic embellishments is extensive in sebene and gives Congolese rumba a dynamic and energetic rhythm.[9][10][11]

Etymology

According to most Congolese musicologists, the term sebene was adapted from the English numeral seven.[12][13][14][15] Although this attribution ostensibly ensues from folk etymology, it is believed that Congolese musicians assimilated this terminology from the palm-wine guitar tradition prevalent among West African migrants who resettled in Léopoldville (now Kinshasa) during the early 1900s and "whose music was interspersed with seventh chords ("seventh" → "seben")". Their music was believed to instill a sense of suspense conducive to dance.[16] While alternate descriptive designations (e.g., "chauffée," "saccadée," "animation," "partie dansante," "ambiance") are used to delineate this musical interlude, sebene stands as the oldest and pervasive terminology extensively preferred by musicians.[16]

Characteristics

During the instrumental section of sebene, the rhythmic section momentarily recedes, creating an open space for the proliferation of intricate, syncopated guitar refrains. As expounded in John Conteh-Morgan and Tejumola Olaniyan's "African Drama and Performance," after the ending of the last line of the chorus by singers, "the lead guitarist then kicks off the seben with a guitar rill that is slightly accelerated and is soon joined by the drummer's snare, the atalakus marakas (now acting as a rattle), and a random scream from somewhere off-mic".[17][12]

According to Guy-Léon Fylla, for the tonal center C, the successive notes would encompass:

This constitutes a dynamic and commanding musical interlude, allowing the solo guitar to conclude an improvisational passage before recommencing vocalization or facilitating the alternation for the expression of another instrument, customarily the brass (trumpets), the woodwinds (saxophones, clarinets), or keyboards, for which it then serves as a substratum for execution.[8]

The degree recurrently prevalent in a song is I, IV, V.[18] There are five main cadences that characterize sebene:[18]

The musical beat is delineated through a sequential count akin to a metronome, typically enumerating as 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. In the context of African music, chord changes, or degree shifts, typically occur every two or four pulses.[18]

Although old Congolese rumba pieces from the 1940s-1960s did not feature atalakus, the introduction of the atalaku in 1982, pioneered by Nono Monzuluku and Bébé Atalaku of Zaïko Langa Langa, emerged as a seminal innovation. Throughout the sebene, the atalakus' primary function is to galvanize people to dance, which they achieve through an amalgam of shouts, sung refrains, and vocal embellishments.[17] In addition to vocal exhortations, the atalakus are instrumentalists and dancers, using a shaker to enhance the rhythmic pulse while also intermittently leaving the microphone to join the dance ensemble.[17]

History

The origin of sebene is a subject of contentious debate, with differing attributions and perspectives. Guy-Léon Fylla and Clément Ossinondé credit Antoine Kasongo's Odéon Kinois Orchestra with pioneering the style in 1947,[19][20] while Congolese musicologist Audifax Bemba posits that guitarist Zacharie Élenga, known as Jhimmy L'hawaïenne, introduced sebene during his brief stint within the orchestra.[8] Conversely, British musicologist Gary Stewart contends that sebene made its debut appearance in Antoine Wendo Kolosoy's 1948 critically acclaimed hit "Marie-Louise," featuring a duet with Henri Bowane, wherein Wendo sings his affection for a woman confronting familial dissent. Bowane advises Wendo that his rhetoric is futile, and they should abscond with her to Kingabwa.[21] Bowane then exclaims "Yoka sebene," segueing into a guitar solo. According to Stewart, this instance popularized the term "sebene" as a prolonged instrumental interlude.[21]

Nonetheless, certain Congolese musicians propose an alternative origin, suggesting that sebene originated with Coastmen from West Africa who were resettled in Léopoldville by colonialists after the first surge of the Second World War, to work in the inaugural Dutch and Belgian factories. These Coastmen founded the Excelsior Orchestra in the port town of Boma on the north bank of the Congo River.[22] This group was a replica of Accra's Excelsior and enlivened weekends with highlife songs in bars (often rudimentary or constructed from reeds) and on street corners, hosting traditional Kongo's maringa dance performances, with European instrumentation: guitar, saxophone, two-bell trumpet, chromatic accordion, and piano.[21][22][23][24] Congolese guitarists enthusiastically incorporated the seventh chord into their solos, frequently signaling one another with exclamations of "seven," which evolved into the term "sebene."[21]

During their time with Zaïko Langa Langa, Bébé Atalaku and Nono Monzuluku co-pioneered atalaku. [25][26]

Félix Manuaku Waku is also often cited as a pioneering figure in the development of sebene,[27][28] although some trace its origins further back to transitional genres like the kebo. According to Stewart, the segment where most dancing transpired was called the sebene. One Lingala dictionary defines "sebene" as dance, though the exact point of its linguistic assimilation remains uncertain.[21] Regardless of its provenance, sebene burgeoned in popularity during the 1950s, with Franco Luambo emerging as a leading practitioner, popularizing a primarily guitar-based sebene explicitly associated with physical release (défoulement).[21][29]

Three essential elements converged to create a successful sebene: the cavacha rhythm, a distinctive lead guitar style, and the exclamations of the atalaku.[29] While song sections may exhibit diverse rhythms and tempos, the cavacha rhythm, characterized by its onomatopoeic name, remains remarkably consistent across groups and time periods. Meridjo Belobi, the drummer of Zaïko Langa Langa, is credited with popularizing the cavacha rhythm, which is played primarily on the snare or hi-hats, lending a solid, driving feel to the rhythm.[29]

The atalaku, whose name purportedly stems from the Kikongo expression for "look here, look at me," plays a crucial role in creating an atmosphere of excitement during sebene performances.[29][30][31][32] Their improvisational prowess, combining shouts, melodies, and vocal pyrotechnics, aims to incite both the audience and fellow musicians to lose themselves in the music, despite their relative obscurity compared to other band members.[29]

References

  1. ^ White, Bob W. (27 June 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. pp. 56–59. ISBN 978-0-8223-4112-3.
  2. ^ Ellingham, Mark; Trillo, Richard; Broughton, Simon, eds. (1999). World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. London, England, United States: Rough Guides. p. 460. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8.
  3. ^ Clark, Duncan Antony; Lusk, Jon; Ellingham, Mark; Broughton, Simon, eds. (2006). The Rough Guide to World Music: Africa & Middle East. London, England, United Kingdom: Rough Guides. p. 77. ISBN 978-1-84353-551-5.
  4. ^ Coelho, Victor, ed. (10 July 2003). The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar. Cambridge, England, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-521-00040-6.
  5. ^ Salawu, Abiodun; Fadipe, Israel A., eds. (31 May 2022). Indigenous African Popular Music, Volume 1: Prophets and Philosophers. Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany: Springer International Publishing. p. 352. ISBN 978-3-030-97884-6.
  6. ^ Yankah, Kwesi; Peek, Philip M., eds. (March 2004). African Folklore: An Encyclopedia. Thames, Oxfordshire United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis. p. 527. ISBN 978-1-135-94873-3.
  7. ^ White, Bob W. (27 June 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. pp. 53–58. ISBN 978-0-8223-4112-3.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Bemba, Audifax (10 October 2023). "Le sébène dans la musique congolaise moderne" [Sébène in modern Congolese music]. Congopage (in French). Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  9. ^ a b Guitar Atlas: Guitar Styles from Around the World. Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California, United States: Alfred Music Publishing. 2008. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7390-5563-2.
  10. ^ a b Conteh-Morgan, John; Olaniyan, Tejumola, eds. (October 2004). African Drama and Performance. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-21701-1.
  11. ^ a b White, Bob W. (27 June 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-0-8223-4112-3.
  12. ^ a b Eyre, Banning (2002). Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music. Van Nuys, Los Angeles, California, United States: Alfred Music Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-7390-2474-4.
  13. ^ White, Bob Whitman (1998). Modernity's Spiral: Popular Culture, Mastery, and the Politics of Dance Music in Congo-Kinshasa. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: McGill University. pp. 141–142.
  14. ^ Barlow, Sean (1995). Afropop!: An Illustrated Guide to Contemporary African Music. New York City, New York State, United States: Chartwell Books. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-7858-0443-7.
  15. ^ Greenstreet, Morgan (7 December 2018). "Seben Heaven: The Roots of Soukous". daily.redbullmusicacademy.com. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  16. ^ a b White, Bob W. (27 June 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-8223-4112-3.
  17. ^ a b c Conteh-Morgan, John; Olaniyan, Tejumola, eds. (October 2004). African Drama and Performance. Bloomington, Indiana, United States: Indiana University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-253-21701-1.
  18. ^ a b c "Les temps au sebene" (PDF). Mikoumusique.com (in French). 2020. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
  19. ^ Ossinondé, Clément (27 September 2019). "Congo-Brazzaville - Guy Léon Fylla: Le souvenir d'une grande légende de la musique congolaise 4 ans après sa disparition" [Congo-Brazzaville - Guy Léon Fylla: The memory of a great legend of Congolese music 4 years after his disappearance]. Congopage (in French). Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  20. ^ Ossinondé, Clément (7 September 2019). "Les deux premiers grands orchestres de cuivres de Brazzaville et de Kinshasa en 1940" [The first two major brass orchestras of Brazzaville and Kinshasa in 1940]. Zenga-mambu.com (in French). Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  21. ^ a b c d e f Stewart, Gary (5 May 2020). Rumba on the River: A History of the Popular Music of the Two Congos. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78960-911-0.
  22. ^ a b Tsambu, Leon. "Section 1.-1930-1950: de l'agbaya à l'ère de la musique populaire moderne pionnière" [Section 1.-1930-1950: from agbaya to the era of pioneering modern popular music]. Bokundoli (in French). Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  23. ^ wa Mukuna, Kazadi (1992). "The Genesis of Urban Music in Zaïre". African Music. 7 (2): 72–84. doi:10.21504/amj.v7i2.1945. ISSN 0065-4019. JSTOR 30249807.
  24. ^ Martin, Phyllis (8 August 2002). Leisure and Society in Colonial Brazzaville. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. pp. 131–152. ISBN 978-0-521-52446-9.
  25. ^ Kalome, Botowamungu (15 January 2024). "Atalaku Nono Monzuluku: pionnier, impérial, imprévisible" [Atalaku Nono Monzuluku: pioneer, imperial, unpredictable]. Afriquechos.ch (in French). Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  26. ^ Seaman, Jacobs Odongo; Omollo, Sammy (20 January 2024). "Atalaku: The rubbish that gave Soukous its bounce". Monitor. Nairobi, Kenya. Retrieved 2024-04-19.
  27. ^ Mafina, Frédéric (2 July 2021). "Les immortelles chansons d'Afrique : « Obi » de Felix Manuaku waku" [The immortal songs of Africa: "Obi" by Felix Manuaku waku]. www.adiac-congo.com (in French). Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  28. ^ M'Buy, Saint Hervé (2 February 2016). "Père fondateur du « Sébène », Pépé Felly Manuaku : « les médailles marquent la reconnaissance d'une carrière »" [Founding father of "Sébène", Pépé Felly Manuaku: "the medals mark the recognition of a career"]. www.mediacongo.net (in French). Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Retrieved 2024-04-26.
  29. ^ a b c d e White, Bob W. (27 June 2008). Rumba Rules: The Politics of Dance Music in Mobutu's Zaire. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. pp. 56–59. ISBN 978-0-8223-4112-3.
  30. ^ Research in African Literatures. Austin, Texas, United States: African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas [at Austin. 1999. pp. 158–164.
  31. ^ Braun, Lesley Nicole (2023-01-24). Congo's Dancers: Women and Work in Kinshasa. Madison, Wisconsin, United States: University of Wisconsin Pres. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-299-34030-8.
  32. ^ Nuttall, Sarah (2006). African and Diaspora Aesthetics. Durham, North Carolina, United States: Duke University Press. pp. 85–91. ISBN 978-0-8223-3907-6.
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