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{{short description|US Navy Fleet admiral (1878–1956)}}
{{redirect|Admiral King}}
{{good article}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Infobox military person
| name          = Ernest J. King
| image         = FADM Ernest J. King.jpg
| image_size    =
| alt           = A middle aged man in naval uniform with tie, cap and awards standing with his hands in his pockets, in front of a large framed photograph of ships at sea. Color photograph
| caption       = Official portrait, 1945
| nickname      = {{ubl | "Ernie" | "Rey" }}
| birth_date    = {{Birth date|1878|11|23|df=y}}
| birth_place   = [[Lorain, Ohio]], U.S.
| death_date    = {{Death date and age|1956|6|25|1878|11|23|df=y}}
| death_place   = [[Kittery, Maine]], U.S.
| placeofburial = [[United States Naval Academy Cemetery]] in [[Annapolis, Maryland]], U.S.
| allegiance    = <!-- United States; too obvious to list -->
| branch        = [[United States Navy]]
| serviceyears  = 1901–1956
| rank          = [[Fleet admiral (United States)|Fleet admiral]]
| unit          =
| commands      = {{ubl | [[Chief of Naval Operations]] | [[United States Fleet]] | [[United States Fleet Forces Command|Atlantic Fleet]] | [[Bureau of Aeronautics]] | {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}} | [[Naval Station Norfolk]] | {{USS|Wright|AV-1|6}} | {{USS|Bridge|AF-1|6}} | [[Naval Postgraduate School]] | {{USS|Cassin|DD-43|6}} | {{USS|Terry|DD-25|6}} }}
| battles       = {{Tree list}}
* [[Spanish–American War]]
* [[Mexican Revolution]]
** [[United States occupation of Veracruz|Occupation of Veracruz]]
* [[World War I]]
** [[First Battle of the Atlantic]]
* [[World War II]]
** [[Second Battle of the Atlantic]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| awards        = {{plainlist|
* [[Navy Cross]]
* [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]&nbsp;(3)
}}
| relations     =
| laterwork     = President, [[Naval Historical Foundation]]
}}

'''Ernest Joseph King''' (23 November 1878 – 25 June 1956) was a [[Fleet admiral (United States)|fleet admiral]] in the [[United States Navy]] who served as Commander in Chief, [[United States Fleet]] (COMINCH) and [[Chief of Naval Operations]] (CNO) during [[World War&nbsp;II]]. [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] appointed King to command global American strategy during World War&nbsp;II and he held supreme naval command in his unprecedented double capacity as COMINCH and CNO. He was the U.S. Navy's second-most senior officer in World War II after Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, who served as Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief. [[Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief]]. King commanded the United States Navy's operations, planning, and administration and was a member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] and [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]].

King graduated fourth in the [[United States Naval Academy]] class of 1901. He received his first command in 1914, of the [[destroyer]] {{USS|Terry|DD-25|6}} in the [[United States occupation of Veracruz|occupation of Veracruz]]. During [[World War&nbsp;I]], he served on the staff of [[Vice Admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] [[Henry T. Mayo]], the commander in chief of the [[United States Fleet Forces Command|Atlantic Fleet]]. After the war, King was the head of the [[Naval Postgraduate School]] and commanded submarine [[division (naval)|division]]s. He directed the salvage of the submarine {{USS|S-51|SS-162|6}}, earning the first of his three [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]s, and later that of the {{USS|S-4|SS-109|6}}. He qualified as a [[naval aviator]] in 1927, and was captain of the [[aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}}. He then served as Chief of the [[Bureau of Aeronautics]]. Following a period on the Navy's [[General Board of the United States Navy|General Board]], he became commander in chief of the Atlantic Fleet in February 1941.

Shortly after the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], King was appointed as COMINCH, and in March 1942, he succeeded [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[Harold R. Stark]] as CNO, holding these two positions under wartime Executive Order. He also established the "numbered fleet" organizations under his direct authority, to include his personal commands of the [[First Fleet]] in global offensive submarine efforts and conversely the [[Tenth Fleet]] for global antisubmarine efforts. Through his remarkable authorities as COMINCH and CNO, all subordinate commanders acted under King's direct influence. King personally empowered the COMINCH Headquarters to execute global tactical operations, such as the campaign against the [[U-boat]]s. He held paramount authority in representing the U.S. Navy during the top-level [[Allied World War II conferences]]. On the Combined Chiefs, King advocated means to attain speedy victory in Europe First in order to execute the final reconstruction strategy for global stabilization through the central [[Pacific War]] maritime offensive in Asia. Never preoccupied with land operations, King stood out as the paramount voice in advancing the naval view of global strategy.

==Early life and education==
Ernest Joseph King was born in [[Lorain, Ohio]], on 23 November 1878, the second child of James Clydesdale King, a Scottish immigrant from [[Bridge of Weir]], [[Renfrewshire]], and his wife Elizabeth (Bessie) {{nee}} Keam, an immigrant from [[Plymouth]], England. His father initially worked as a bridge builder, but moved to Lorain, where he worked in a railway repair shop. He had an older brother who died in infancy, two younger brothers and two younger sisters:{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=3–4}} Maude (who died aged seven), Mildred, Norman and Percy.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=11–13}}

The family moved to [[Uhrichsville, Ohio]], when his father took a position with the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] workshops, but returned to Lorain a year later. When King was eleven years old, the family moved to [[Cleveland]], where his father was a foreman at the [[Valley Railway]] workshops, and King was educated at the Fowler School. He decided to go to work rather than high school, and took a position with a company that made typesetting machines. When it closed he went to work for his father. After a year, the family returned to Lorain, and King entered [[Lorain High School]].{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=11–13}} He graduated as valedictorian in the Class of 1897; his commencement speech was titled "Uses of Adversity".{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=14}}{{sfn|Murray|Millett|2009|p=336}} The school was a small one; there were only thirteen classmates in his year.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=7}}

[[File:NH 50033 Naval Cadet Ernest J. King, USN.jpg|thumb|left|upright|As a naval cadet circa 1901|alt=Black and white portrait from the torso up of a young man in a shirt]]
King secured an appointment to the [[United States Naval Academy]] in [[Annapolis, Maryland]], from his local Congressman, [[Winfield Scott Kerr]], after passing physical and written examinations in [[Mansfield, Ohio]], ahead of thirty other applicants.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=14–15}} He entered Annapolis as a [[naval cadet]] on 18 August 1897.<!-- In 1882, a law passed designating the student officers as "naval cadets". They became midshipmen again in 1902 - after King had graduated. See https://www.usna.edu/USNAHistory/timeline.php --> He acquired the nickname "Rey", the Spanish word for "king".{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=8–12}}

During the summer breaks, naval cadets served on ships to accustom them to life at sea. While still at the Naval Academy, King served on the [[cruiser]] {{USS|San Francisco|C-5|6}} during the [[Spanish–American War]].{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=18–23}} During his senior year at the academy, he attained the rank of cadet lieutenant commander, the highest naval cadet ranking at that time. He graduated in June 1901, ranked fourth in his class of sixty-seven and he was elected to serve at the head of the brigade. In thinking about American maritime policy, King often recalled the influence of the graduation address as given by the [[Vice President of the United States]], [[Theodore Roosevelt]], who handed out the diplomas.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=30–33}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=22-30}}{{-}}

==Surface ships==
===Far East cruise===
Graduates like King who went into the Navy had to serve for two years at sea before being commissioned as [[ensign (rank)|ensign]]s.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=30–33}} King took a short course in [[torpedo]] design and operation at the [[Naval Torpedo Station]] at [[Newport, Rhode Island]]. He then became the [[navigator]] of the [[survey ship]] {{USS|Eagle|1898|6}}, which conducted surveys of [[Cienfuegos Bay]] in Cuba. An eye injury resulted in his being sent to the [[Brooklyn Naval Hospital]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=16–20}} When he recovered, he was ordered to report to the [[battleship]] {{USS|Illinois|BB-7|6}}, which was berthed in [[Brooklyn]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=16–20}}  The ''Illinois'' was the [[flagship]] of [[Rear Admiral (United States)|Rear Admiral]] [[Arent S. Crowninshield]], and King got to know Crowninshield's staff well. King hoped to find adventure, seeking orders to the cruiser {{USS|Cincinnati|C-7|6}}, which was bound for the Asiatic Fleet.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=45–47}}

King was promoted to ensign on 7 June 1903,{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxii–xxv}} having taken his examination while the ''Cincinnati'' was in Europe.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=45–47}} The ''Cincinnati'' spent several weeks at anchor in [[Manila Bay]], where it conducted target practice. In February 1904 it sailed to Korea, where the [[Russo-Japanese War]] had broken out. It remained in Korean waters until October, when it went to China. It was back in Manila for more target practice in February and March 1905 before returning to China. In June 1906, it escorted the Russian cruisers {{ship|Russian cruiser|Oleg||2}}, {{ship|Russian cruiser|Aurora||2}} and {{ship|Russian cruiser|Zhemchug||2}}, survivors of the [[Battle of Tsushima]], into Manila Bay, where they were interned.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=50–59}}

As a junior officer, several captains applauded King's technical ability and future potential. However, he upset many superiors by being cocky, perhaps overly confident, and certainly uninterested in fitting in with the prevailing wardroom culture of the era. In the Asiatic Fleet, King attained a reputation for being too willing to hang around in bars associated with enlisted sailors. His popular reputation for seeking the company of women originates with the tales told of King's early career exploits with the Asiatic Fleet. Bouts of heavy drinking led to King being put [[:wikt:under hatches|under hatches]], and a forthright and arrogant attitude bordering on insubordination led to adverse comments in his fitness reports. At one point, he ran afoul of the Executive Officer of ''Cincinnati'', Commander [[Hugh Rodman]], which resulted in King's nomination for dismissal.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=23–25}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=19–45}}

When King heard heard that members of the Annapolis class of 1902 were being sent home from the [[Asiatic Fleet]], he sought and obtained an audience with Rear Admiral [[Charles J. Train]]. Train agreed that King was entitled to go home and arranged for him to travel on the former [[hospital ship]] {{USS|Solace|AH-2|6}}, which departed on 27 June.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=61–62}}

===Marriage and Annapolis===
[[File:NH 50032 Group portrait taken aboard USS Cincinnati (C-7).jpg|thumb|left|Group portrait taken aboard {{USS |Cincinnati|C-7|6}} at [[Chefoo]], China, circa 1905. King is at left.|alt=Three rows of men, one seated on the floor and two standing, in a black and white photograph taken on a ship's deck with the American flag flying above]]
On returning to the United States, King rejoined his fiancée, Martha Rankin ("Mattie") Egerton, a [[Baltimore]] [[socialite]] he had met while at the Naval Academy.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=12}} They had become engaged in January 1903.<ref>{{cite news |title=Engagement Announced |newspaper=[[The Baltimore Sun]] |date=9 January 1903 |via=Newspapers.com |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/371073780/ |access-date=7 May 2024 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003842/https://www.newspapers.com/image/371073780/ |url-status=live }}</ref> She was living at [[West Point, New York]], with her sister Florence,{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=26}} who had married an Army officer, [[Walter Smith (American football)|Walter D. Smith]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Marriage announcement of Florence Beverly Egerton |newspaper=The Baltimore Sun |date=27 March 1901 |page=7 |url=https://baltimoresun.newspapers.com/article/the-baltimore-sun-marriage-announcement/82899769/ |access-date=8 May 2024 |via=newspapers.com |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003842/https://baltimoresun.newspapers.com/article/the-baltimore-sun-marriage-announcement/82899769/ |url-status=live }}</ref> King and Egerton were married in a ceremony in the [[West Point Cadet Chapel]] on 10 October 1905.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|p=69}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=64}} They had six daughters, Claire, Elizabeth, Florence, Martha, Eleanor and Mildred; and a son, Ernest Joseph "Joe" King, Jr.{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=405-445}} Mattie stood out as the enabler for King's rise within the ranks, as she presided within the social monoculture among what her friend, Anne Briscoe Pye, described in the manual, ''The Navy Wife.''{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=149}}

King's next assignment was as a gunnery officer on the battleship {{USS|Alabama|BB-8|6}}. King became a critic of shipboard organization, which was largely unchanged since the days of sail. He published his thoughts in ''Some Ideas About Organization on Board Ship'' in the ''[[Proceedings (magazine)|United States Naval Institute Proceedings]]'', which won a prize for best essay in 1909. "The writer fully realizes the possible opposition," he wrote, "for if there is anything more characteristic of the navy than its fighting ability, it is its inertia to change, or conservatism, or the clinging to things that are old because they are old."{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=26–28}}{{sfn|King|1909|p=129}} In addition to a gold medal, the prize came with $500 ({{Inflation|US|500|1909|fmt=eq|r=-3}}) and a lifetime membership of the [[United States Naval Institute]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=35}}

[[File:S-052.01.jpg|thumb|Admiral Henry T. Mayo (center) during 31 October 1918 inspection of Naval Air Station Pauillac, France. At left is King; between them is the station's commanding officer, Captain Franck T. Evans.|alt=Four uniformed soldiers in front of a car, a uniformed soldier and a building with chimneys in the background. Black and white photograph]]
Officers of King's generation generally served three years at sea in the ranks of passed midshipman and ensign before attaining eligibility for promotion to lieutenant. The rank of [[lieutenant (junior grade)]] served as a temporal waypoint for officers requiring additional training or who failed to attain the requisite endorsements to receive the immediate promotion from ensign to the rank of [[lieutenant]]. King passed his exams and secured the requisite endorsement for promotion to lieutenant, although his missteps as a junior officer required the approval of the Navy Retention Board. For this reason, King left the Asiatic Fleet for temporary duty in  [[Washington, D.C.]], for ten days of physical examinations and eventually his appearance before the Retention Board, as chaired by the [[President of the Naval War College]], Rear Admiral Charles B. Stockton. Impressed with King's potential, Stockton arranged the assignment of King to the staff of the Naval Academy with duty in the rank of full lieutenant.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=70–71}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=32–36}}

At Annapolis, King taught ordnance, gunnery and seamanship. This posting reunited him with Mattie, who had been living with her family in Baltimore. After two years he became the officer in charge of discipline at [[Bancroft Hall]]. King returned to sea duty in 1909, as flag secretary to Rear Admiral [[Hugo Osterhaus]]. After a year, Osterhaus was transferred to shore duty, and King joined the engineering department of the battleship {{USS|New Hampshire|BB-25|6}}. He soon became the engineering officer. After a year on ''New Hampshire'', Osterhaus returned to sea duty and King became his flag secretary once more. Fellow officers on the staff included [[Dudley Wright Knox|Dudley Knox]] as fleet gunnery officer and [[Harry E. Yarnell]] as fleet engineering officer. King returned to shore duty at Annapolis in May 1912 as executive officer of the Naval Engineering Experiment Station. While there, he served as the secretary-treasurer of the Naval Institute, editing and publishing papers in the ''Proceedings''.{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=19–35}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=38–41}} He was promoted to [[Lieutenant commander (United States)|lieutenant commander]] on 1 July 1913.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxii–xxv}}

===World War I===
[[File:NH 120129 Admiral Mayo and staff.jpg|thumb|left|Admiral [[Henry T. Mayo]] and his staff. King is at left.|alt=Eight men in front of a building's door at the center of a black and white photograph]]
When war with Mexico threatened in 1913, King went to Washington, D.C., to lobby for command of a [[destroyer]]. He received his first command, the destroyer {{USS|Terry|DD-25|6}} on 30 April 1914, participating in the [[United States occupation of Veracruz]], escorting a mule transport from [[Galveston, Texas]]. He then moved on to his second command, a more modern destroyer, the {{USS|Cassin|DD-43|6}} on 18 July 1914. He also served as an [[aide-de-camp]] to the commander of the [[United States Atlantic Fleet|Atlantic Fleet]] destroyer flotilla, [[Captain (United States Navy)|Captain]]  [[William S. Sims]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxii–xxv}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=43–44}}

In December 1915, King joined the staff of Vice Admiral [[Henry T. Mayo]], the [[Commander in Chief]], of the Atlantic Fleet. After the United States entered [[World War I]], King went to the UK as part of Mayo's staff. He was a frequent visitor to the [[Royal Navy]] and occasionally saw action as an observer on board British ships.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=48–51}} He was awarded the [[Navy Cross]] "for distinguished service in the line of his profession as assistant chief of staff of the Atlantic Fleet."<ref>{{cite web |title=Full Text Citations For Award of The Navy Cross to Members of the U.S. Navy World War I |url=http://www.homeofheroes.com/valor/1_Citations/01_wwi-nc/nc_02_WW1_Navy-ADM.html |publisher=Home of Heroes |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929121952/http://www.homeofheroes.com/valor/1_Citations/01_wwi-nc/nc_02_WW1_Navy-ADM.html |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}</ref> He was promoted to [[Commander (United States)|commander]] on 1 July 1917 and captain on 21 September 1918.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxii–xxv}} After the war King adopted his signature manner of wearing his uniform with a breast-pocket handkerchief below his ribbons. Officers serving alongside the Royal Navy did this in emulation of the British Admiral [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|David Beatty]], the commander of the British [[Grand Fleet]]. King was the last to continue this tradition.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=50–52}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Young|first=Frank Pierce|title=Pearl Harbor History: Building The Way To A Date Of Infamy|url=http://www.microworks.net/pacific/bases/pearl_1919-1941.htm|access-date=25 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605074031/http://www.microworks.net/pacific/bases/pearl_1919-1941.htm |archive-date=5 June 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

After the war ended in November 1918, King became head of the [[Naval Postgraduate School]] in Annapolis. He bought a house there, where his family lived from then on. With Captains Dudley Knox and [[William S. Pye]], King prepared a report on naval training that recommended changes to naval training and career paths, which gained wide circulation when he published it in the ''Proceedings''. Most of the report's recommendations were ignored within the Navy Department, although the ideas within the so-called "K-P-K Report" slowly influenced Bureau of Navigation policies for assigning officers for duty between sea duty and shore duty in the 1920s and 1930s.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=36, 54–55}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2018|pp=137–139}}

In 1921, King heard that Rear Admiral [[Henry B. Wilson]], an officer whose stance on naval education he disliked, was to become the [[Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy|Superintendent of the Naval Academy]]. King approached Captain [[William D. Leahy]] about an early return to sea duty. Leahy told him he was too junior for a seagoing captain's command, and that nothing was available. After some discussion, King eventually accepted command of {{USS|Bridge|AF-1|6}}, a [[stores ship]]. Although auxiliaries like ''Bridge'' served a vital role, such a command was regarded as boring and was avoided by ambitious officers.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=58}}
==Submarines==
[[File:NH 41834 RADM Philip Andrews, Secretary Curtis D. Wilbur, CAPT Ernest J. King, and LT Henry Hartley during salvage work of USS S-4.jpg|thumb|King (second from right) during the visit of Secretary of the Navy [[Curtis D. Wilbur]] (second from left) while in charge of salvage work of submarine {{USS|S-4|SS-109|6}} in March 1928. His assistant, Lieutenant [[Henry Hartley]], is on the right while Rear Admiral [[Philip Andrews (admiral)|Philip Andrews]] (left) looks on.|alt=Four men in naval jackets, three of them in caps and one in a top hat, standing to the right of a car, with two buildings in the background. Black and white photograph]]
After a year, King again approached Leahy about securing command of a destroyer [[division (naval)|division]] or [[flotilla]] and again was told that nothing was available. Leahy then suggested that if King was interested in [[submarine]]s, he could offer him command of a submarine division. King accepted.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=58}} King attended a short training course at the Submarine School in [[New London, Connecticut]], before taking command of a submarine division, flying his [[Commodore (United States)|commodore]]'s [[broad pennant|pennant]] from {{USS|S-20|SS-125|6}}. He never earned his [[Submarine Warfare insignia]] (dolphins), although he proposed and designed the now-familiar dolphin insignia.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=62–64}} On 4 September 1923, he took over command of the [[Naval Submarine Base New London|Naval Submarine Base at New London]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=xxiv}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=97–107}}

From September 1925 to July 1926, King directed the salvage of {{USS|S-51|SS-162|6}}, earning the first of his three [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]s. The task was a demanding one: ''S-51'' lay on the bottom with a large gash on the side in {{convert|130|ft}} of water near [[Block Island]], and navy salvage divers were not accustomed to working below {{convert|90|ft}}. The submarine was raised by sealing compartments and forcing the water out of them with compressed air. Eight pontoon floats were added to make it buoyant again. Just as they were ready to raise it, a storm hit and the submarine suddenly rose to the surface. After an attempt to tow it failed, King made the difficult decision to sink it again. Eventually the divers succeeded in raising it and getting it to the [[New York Navy Yard]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=67–70}}

==Aviation==
===Aviator training===
In 1925, Rear Admiral [[William A. Moffett]], Chief of the [[Bureau of Aeronautics]], asked King if he would consider a transfer to [[naval aviation]]. King was unable to accept the offer at that time due to the salvage of ''S-51'', and he wanted command of a cruiser, which Leahy was unable to offer. King then accepted Moffett's offer, although he still hoped for a cruiser.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=71–72}} He assumed command of the aircraft tender {{USS|Wright|AV-1|6}}, with additional duties as senior aide on the staff of Commander, Air Squadrons, Atlantic Fleet.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=187}}

[[File:80-G-451362 Captain Ernest J. King and his officers on the USS Lexington (CV-2).jpg|thumb|left|King (center) and his officers on the {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}}|alt=Two rows of uniformed naval officers, five seated and four standing, in a black and white photograph taken on a ship's deck]]
That year, the [[United States Congress]] passed a law ([[Title 10 of the United States Code|10 USC Sec. 5942]]) requiring commanders of all [[aircraft carrier]]s, [[seaplane tender]]s, and aviation shore establishments be qualified [[naval aviator]]s or [[naval flight officer|naval aviation observer]]s. King therefore reported to [[Naval Air Station Pensacola]], Florida, for aviator training in January 1927. He was the only captain in his class of twenty; although it also included Commander [[Richmond K. Turner]], most of the class were ensigns or lieutenants. King received his [[Aircrew Badge|wings]] as Naval Aviator No. 3368 on 26 May 1927 and resumed command of ''Wright''.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=192–193}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=75–76}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=97–107}}

Between 1926 and 1936 King flew an average of 150 hours annually.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=228}} For a time, he frequently flew solo, flying to Annapolis for weekend visits with his family, but his solo flying was eliminated by a naval regulation prohibiting them for aviators aged 50 or over.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=192–193}} King commanded ''Wright'' until 1929, except for a brief interlude overseeing the salvage of {{USS|S-4|SS-109|6}},{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=76–78}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=97–107}} for which he was awarded a [[5/16 inch star|gold star]] to his Distinguished Service Medal.<ref name="Military Times" /> He then became Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics under Moffett. The two quarreled over certain elements of Bureau policy, and King was replaced by Commander [[John Henry Towers]] and transferred to command of [[Naval Station Norfolk]].{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=211}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=107-146}}

===Aircraft carrier captain===
On 20 June 1930, King became captain of the [[aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}}—then one of the largest aircraft carriers in the world—which he commanded for the next two years.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=214}} When not on duty, he enjoyed drinking, partying and socializing with his junior officers. He ignored complaints that some of his officers rented a secluded farmhouse where [[prohibition in the United States|prohibition]] and [[blue laws]] were flouted. He enjoyed the company of women and had many affairs. Women avoided sitting next to him at dinner parties if they did not want to be groped under the table.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=89–92}}

Stories of and about the popular image of King often obscured the remarkable history underlying the pivotal events, which later shaped his command persona within the context of the U.S. Naval services in his era. Fidelity to the service also required fidelity within the context of the service monoculture. King's wife and seven children usually accompanied to his various assignments ashore. King purchased several homes, along the way. By 1932, he purchased a home near the Naval War College in Rhode Island because the CNO, Admiral [[William V. Pratt]] advised King to expect orders to serve as [[President of the Naval War College]]. At that time, Pratt wished for King to assist experimentation and discussions of doctrine for submarines, aircraft carriers, and amphibious force development ongoing at the [[Naval War College]].{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=147-160}}

Still too junior in lineal standing for an assured promotion to flag rank in 1932, King formally attended the [[Naval War College]] in the Senior Officer's Course while awaiting the results of the impending flag promotion board. In one of his writings as submitted in November of 1932, "The Influence of National Policy on Strategy", King g identified Great Britain and Japan as the United States's most likely adversaries.{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=147-160}}{{sfn|King|1932|pp=26–27}} He expounded on the theory that America's weakness was [[representative democracy]]:
{{blockquote|Historically, despite Washington's (and others') experienced and cogent advice to make due preparations for war, it is traditional and habitual for us to be inadequately prepared. This is the combined result of a number of factors, the character of which is only indicated: democracy, which tends to make everyone believe that he knows it all; the preponderance (inherent in democracy) of people whose real interest is in their own welfare as individuals; the glorification of our own victories in war and the corresponding ignorance of our defeats (and disgraces) and of their basic causes; the inability of the average individual (the man in the street) to understand the cause and effect not only in foreign but domestic affairs, as well as his lack of interest in such matters. Added to these elements is the manner in which our representative (republican) form of government has developed as to put a premium on mediocrity and to emphasize the defects of the electorate already mentioned.{{sfn|King|1932|pp=26–27}}}}

===Chief of the Bureau of Aviation===

[[File:RAdm King SOC on USS Lexington 1936.jpg|thumb|Rear Admiral King arrives on board the {{USS|Lexington|CV-2|6}} in a new [[Curtiss SOC Seagull|SOC Seagull]] in 1936.|alt=Black and white photograph of three men in khaki uniforms standing in front of a plane's centre, one man in aviator's uniform is deboarding while another person also in uniform is seated in the plane]]
When the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Rear Admiral [[William A. Moffett]], died in the crash of the [[airship]] {{USS|Akron|ZRS-4|6}} on 4 April 1933, King received immediate orders in the temporary rank of rear admiral as Chief of BuAer. King earned the support of [[Winder R. Harris]], the  managing editor of ''[[The Virginian-Pilot]]'' newspaper, and [[United States Senator|Senator]] [[Harry F. Byrd]], who wrote to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] to lobby for King's permanent appointment. The [[Chief of Naval Operations]] (CNO), Admiral [[William V. Pratt]], listed King as his fourth choice for the appointment to BuAer, after Rear Admirals [[Joseph M. Reeves]], Harry E. Yarnell and [[John Halligan Jr.]], hoping to install King at the [[Naval War College]]. However, [[Claude A. Swanson]], the new [[Secretary of the Navy]], recommended King, having been impressed by work in the salvage of the ''S-51'' and ''S-4'', pressed the appointment for King to stand as Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, with the requisite Congressional approval pending for the permanent promotion to rear admiral on 26 April 1933.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=240–242}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=161-186}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=96–97}}

As bureau chief, King worked closely with Leahy, who was now the chief of the [[Bureau of Navigation (United States Navy)|Bureau of Navigation]], to increase the number of naval aviators. Together they established the [[Aviation Cadet Training Program (USN)|Aviation Cadet Training Program]] to recruit college graduates as aviators. His relationship with the CNO, Admiral [[William H. Standley]], who sought to assert the power of the CNO over the bureau chiefs, was more tempestuous. With the help of Leahy and Swanson, King managed to block Standley's proposals.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|pp=153–155}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=249}}
{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=161-186}}
{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=100}}

King appeared before a subcommittee of the [[House Appropriations Committee]], chaired by Congressman [[William A. Ayres]], where he was questioned about the Bureau of Aeronautics's contractual arrangements with [[Pratt and Whitney]]. Although warned by his staff that an forthright answer could strain the relationship with the sole supplier of certain engines the Navy needed, King confirmed to the committee that Pratt and Whitney was making profits of up to 45 percent. As a result, the 1934 Vinson–Trammell Act contained a provision limiting profits on government aviation contracts to 10 percent.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=98–99}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=161-186}}
===Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force===
In 1936, there were only two seagoing aviation flag billets: Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force, a vice admiral who commanded the Navy's aircraft carriers, and Commander, Aircraft, Base Force, a rear admiral who commanded the [[seaplane]] squadrons. King hoped to get the former assignment, but this was opposed by Standley, and at the conclusion of his term as bureau chief in 1936, King became Commander, Aircraft, Base Force, at [[Naval Air Station North Island]], California.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=99–101}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=266}} He survived the crash of his [[Douglas XP3D]] transport on 8 February 1937.{{sfn|Morton|1985|pp=70–72}}

Leahy succeeded Standley as CNO on 1 January 1937.<ref>{{cite news |title=Leahy Will Direct Naval Operations |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=11 November 1936 |page=53 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1936/11/11/88083939.html?pageNumber=53 |access-date=14 May 2022}}</ref> King was promoted to vice admiral on 29 January 1938 on becoming Commander, Aircraft, Battle Force – at the time one of only three vice admiral billets in the U.S. Navy.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=279}} He flew his flag on the aircraft carrier {{USS|Saratoga|CV-3|6}}. Among his accomplishments was to corroborate Yarnell's 1932 war game findings in 1938 by staging his own successful simulated naval air raid on [[Pearl Harbor]], showing that the base was dangerously vulnerable to aerial attack, although he was taken no more seriously until 7 December 1941, when the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] [[Pearl Harbor attack|attacked the base]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=110–113}}{{sfn|Reimers|2018|pp=44–47}}

==World War II==
===General Board===
[[File:NH 56956 Secretary's Inspection Tour NAS Pearl Harbor.jpg|thumb|left|Navy Secretary [[Charles Edison]]'s inspection tour of [[Naval Station Pearl Harbor]] on 12 April 1940. Left to right: King, Rear Admiral [[Arthur L. Bristol]], [[Charles Edison]], Rear Admiral [[Claude C. Bloch]] and Captain [[Elliott Buckmaster]]. |alt=Black and white photograph of five men; two men each in white naval uniform with caps standing to the right and left of a man in a suit with a top hat; a car and an opened hangar are at their right and to the back, a group of men in white naval uniform is at the bottom extreme left]]
King hoped to be appointed CNO or Commander in Chief, [[United States Fleet]] (CINCUS), but on 1 July 1939, he reverted to his permanent rank of rear admiral and was posted to the [[General Board of the United States Navy|General Board]], an [[elephants' graveyard]] where senior officers spent the time remaining before retirement. A series of extraordinary events would alter this outcome.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=295}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxiv, 123}} In March, April and May 1940, King accompanied the Secretary of the Navy, [[Charles Edison]], Edison's naval aide, Captain [[Morton L. Deyo]], and Edison's friend [[Arthur Walsh (U.S. senator)|Arthur Walsh]] on a six-week tour of naval bases in the Pacific. En route they stopped in Hollywood to preview ''Edison, the Man'',  a [[biographical film]] about the life of [[Thomas Edison|Edison's father]] starring [[Spencer Tracy]]. "I understand", Walsh told King, referring to a popular myth, "that you shave with a blowtorch." King replied that this was an exaggeration.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=124}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Strategy While Shaving With a Blowtorch (Dusty Shelves) – War Room |date=16 January 2020 |publisher=U.S. Army War College |url=https://warroom.armywarcollege.edu/articles/shaving-with-a-blowtorch/ |first=Jonathan |last=Klug |access-date=7 June 2024 |archive-date=7 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607003937/https://warroom.armywarcollege.edu/articles/shaving-with-a-blowtorch/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Walsh liked the story so much he told everyone he met, and eventually had [[Tiffany & Co.]] make a scale model of a blowtorch, which he presented to King.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=306}}

When they returned to Washington, D.C., Edison gave King a special assignment: to improve the anti-aircraft defenses of the fleet. Experiments with radio-controlled drones making passes at ships in February 1939 had shown that they were very difficult to shoot down. Aircraft were flying faster and carrying bigger bombs, posing a greater threat to the fleet, which would soon be confirmed in combat.{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=139}} King looked over the plans for each type of ship and made recommendations as to what kind of guns could be installed, where they should be located, and what should be removed to make way for them. He prepared a request for $300 million to carry out the program. Edison was impressed, and wrote to Roosevelt, recommending that King be appointed CINCUS, but Roosevelt did not make the appointment, influenced by King's heavy drinking.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=125–127}}
{{Clear}}

===Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet===
[[File:NH 56978 Admiral Ernest J. King, Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet, and Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox.jpg|thumb|King and Secretary of the Navy [[Frank Knox]] on the cruiser {{USS|Augusta|CA-31|6}} in Bermuda in September 1941|alt=Black and white photograph of two men. One is in a suit with his hand placed on the ship's deck's inner railing, the other is in white naval uniform with a cap, two men in khaki are to their left while an oil tanker is to their right]]
The CNO, Admiral [[Harold R. Stark]], considered King's talent for command was best employed in efforts to organize American strategy in conjunction with the British, once King reported to the general board. In September 1940, Stark summoned King to his office, along with the Chief of the Bureau of Navigation, Rear Admiral [[Chester W. Nimitz]], and offered King the command of the [[Atlantic Squadron]]. Nimitz explained that while King had been a vice admiral in his last seagoing command, he would only be a rear admiral for this one. King replied that he did not care, and accepted the position. However, his assumption of command was delayed for a month by a [[hernia]] operation, and then several more weeks while he accompanied Edison's successor, [[Frank Knox]], on another inspection tour, this time of bases in the Atlantic.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=125–127}}
On 17 December 1940, King raised his flag as Commander, Patrol Force (as the Atlantic Squadron had been renamed on 1 November) on the battleship {{USS|Texas|BB-35|6}} in [[Norfolk, Virginia]]. When he examined the war plan in the safe, he found it was for a war with Mexico.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=127–129}} His first order, issued three days later, was to place the Patrol Force on a war footing. He astonished subordinates by stating that the United States was already at war with Germany.<ref>{{Cite web |first=James I. |last=Marino |url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/11/23/undeclared-war-in-the-atlantic/ |publisher=Warfare History Network |title=Undeclared War in the Atlantic |date=23 November 2016 |access-date=11 December 2021 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003921/https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/undeclared-war-in-the-atlantic/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In January 1941 King issued [[commons:File:Exercise of Command - Excess of Detail in Orders and Instructions.pdf|Atlantic Fleet directive CINCLANT Serial 053]], encouraging officers to delegate and avoid micromanagement, which is still cited widely in today's armed forces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Navy Leader Development Framework |url=https://media.defense.gov/2020/May/18/2002302036/-1/-1/1/NLDF3MAY19.PDF |date=May 2019 |publisher=US Navy |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=24 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201024190934/https://media.defense.gov/2020/May/18/2002302036/-1/-1/1/NLDF3MAY19.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Holmes |first1=James |title=Memorandum for ACC Commanders: Leadership, Initiative, and War |url=https://www.acc.af.mil/Portals/92/COMACC%20CC%20Memo%20-%20Leadership%20Initiative%20and%20War%20%2820%20Jun%2017%29v2_0.pdf |date=20 June 2017 |publisher=US Air Force |access-date=8 December 2020 |archive-date=1 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901233420/https://www.acc.af.mil/Portals/92/COMACC%20CC%20Memo%20-%20Leadership%20Initiative%20and%20War%20%2820%20Jun%2017%29v2_0.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The Patrol Force was designated the Atlantic Fleet on 1 February 1941. King was promoted to admiral and became the Commander in Chief, Atlantic Fleet (CINCLANT).{{sfn|Morison|1947|p=51}}  Formerly a heavy drinker, he gave up hard liquor for the duration of the war in March 1941.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=148–149}}

[[File:Atlantic Conference Between Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D Roosevelt 10 August 1941 A4817.jpg|thumb|left|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill]] on the quarterdeck of {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|6}} during the [[Atlantic Conference]], 10 August 1941. King and Admiral [[Harold R. Stark]] stand behind them.|alt=Black and white photograph of a group of officers in uniforms and white or black caps standing behind two men seated on chairs talking to each other; the one on the left is in suit and tie, the one on the right is in a naval jacket and a black cap]]

In April 1941, King was summoned to [[Hyde Park, New York]], where Roosevelt informed him of an upcoming conference with the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], [[Winston Churchill]], at [[Argentia]]. He went to Hyde Park again in July to make further arrangements. King found the old ''Texas'' to be unsuitable as a flagship, and on 24 April he switched to the cruiser {{USS|Augusta|CA-31|6}} once it had completed an overhaul.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=329–331}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=19-20}} So it was that in August it was the ''Augusta'' that took Roosevelt to the [[Atlantic Conference]], where King and British Admiral Sir [[Percy Noble (Royal Navy officer)|Percy Noble]] worked out the details for the United States Navy escorting convoys halfway across the Atlantic.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=69–70}}

Rather than risk a conflict with the United States on the eve of the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of the Soviet Union]], the Germans withdrew their submarines from the western Atlantic. This emboldened Roosevelt to take further steps.{{sfn|Heinrichs|1998|pp=127–128}} He declared a National Emergency on 27 May.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=64–65}} On 19 July, King issued orders creating Task Force 1, with the mission of escorting convoys to Iceland, which had been occupied by the [[U.S. Marines]]. Nominally, the convoys were American, but ships of any nationality were free to join.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=74–79}} From 1 September, convoys were escorted to a mid-ocean meeting point, where they met escorts from the [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Canadian Navy]]. The United States was now engaged in an undeclared war, although they were still restricted by the [[Neutrality Acts of the 1930s]].{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=79–85}} On 31 October, the destroyer {{USS|Reuben James|DD-245|6}} became the first U.S. warship to be sunk by a German [[U-boat]].{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=94}} In response to this and other incidents, Congress amended the Neutrality Acts in November, allowing merchant ships to be armed and to deliver goods to British ports.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=80}}

===Commander in Chief, U.S. Fleet===
====Staff====
[[File:NH 109841 Chief of Naval Operations and Staff, 1942 (cropped).jpg|thumb|King and his senior staff. Left to Right: Rear Admiral [[John H. Newton]], Vice Admiral [[Frederick J. Horne]], King, Vice Admiral [[Russell Willson]] and Rear Admiral [[Richard S. Edwards]]. |alt=Black and white photograph of five men in naval uniform seated, in front of a table which has on top of it, from left to right, a book and paper, a beeper, an ashtray, a large map and a rotary dial telephone]]
With the [[United States declaration of war on Germany (1941)|United States declaration of war on Germany]] on 11 December, the Atlantic Fleet was officially at war. On 20 December, King became CINCUS. Ten days later he hoisted his flag on {{USS|Vixen|PG-53|6}} and was succeeded as CINCLANT by Admiral [[Royal E. Ingersoll]].{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=114–115}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|p=353}} Nimitz became the Commander in Chief of the [[United States Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] on the same day.{{sfn|Morison|1948|p=255}} Legend has it that King said: "When they get into trouble, they call for the sons-of-bitches." [[John L. McCrea]], Roosevelt's naval aide, asked King if he actually had said it. King replied that he had not, but would have if he had thought of it.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=573}}{{sfn|Barlow|1998|p=177}} The abbreviation CINCUS (pronounced "sink-us") seemed inappropriate after the [[Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor]], and on 12 March 1942 King officially changed it to COMINCH.{{sfn|Morison|1948|p=255}}

Stark was reluctant to part with Ingersoll as his chief of staff, but King insisted that he was needed as CINCLANT. He offered Rear Admiral [[Russell Willson]], the Superintendent of the Naval Academy, and Rear Admiral [[Frederick J. Horne]], from the General Board, as replacements. Stark chose Horne, and King then took Willson as his own chief of staff. Rear Admiral [[Richard S. Edwards]], who had served King as Commander, Submarines, Atlantic Fleet, became his deputy chief of staff. For assistant chiefs of staff, King selected Rear Admirals [[Richmond K. Turner]] and [[Willis A. Lee]].{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=116–117}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=154–155}}

King did not get along with Willson; their personalities were too different, and later admitted that he had made a mistake in appointing him. King had Willson retired in August 1942 due to heart conduction and replaced him with Edwards.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=176–178}} When Turner went to the South Pacific for the [[Guadalcanal campaign]], he was succeeded by Rear Admiral [[Charles M. Cooke Jr.]].{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=116–117}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=154–155}} Although he was now based at the Navy Department in Washington, D.C., King wanted to be able to put to sea himself at any time. For his flagship, he selected the {{SS|Delphine|1921|6}}, a luxury yacht formerly owned by the family of [[Horace Dodge]], which King renamed USS ''Dauntless''. King lived on board ''Dauntless'', which spent most of the war at anchor at the [[Washington Navy Yard]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=157–161}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|p=251}}

====Joint Chiefs of Staff====
[[File:80-G-K-14448 USS Dauntless (PG-61).jpg|thumb|left|King's flagship, the {{USS|Dauntless|PG-61|6}}, docked at the [[Washington Navy Yard]], D.C.|alt=Color photograph of a ship docked at a yard]]
When the American chiefs of staff, which included King and Stark, met with the British [[Chiefs of Staff Committee]] at the [[Arcadia Conference]] in Washington, D.C., from 24 December 1941 to 14 January 1942,<ref>{{cite web |title=Arcadia Conference |publisher=Joint Chiefs of Staff |url=https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/History/WWII/Arcadia3.pdf |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=26 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626114518/https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/History/WWII/Arcadia3.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> they agreed to merge their organizations to form the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] (CCS), which held its first meeting in Washington, D.C., on 23 January 1942. To parallel the British chiefs, the Americans formed the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (JCS), which held its first meeting on 9 February 1942. The Joint Chiefs of Staff initially consisted of Stark, King, [[General (United States)|General]] [[George C. Marshall]], the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]], and [[Lieutenant general (United States)|Lieutenant General]] [[Henry H. Arnold]], the Chief of the [[United States Army Air Corps]]. In his role as a member of the CCS and JCS, King became engaged in the formulation of [[grand strategy]], which came to occupy the majority of his time.{{sfn|Stoler|2003|pp=64–65}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=366–368}}

Roosevelt's Executive Order 8984 made COMINCH the commander of the operational forces of the navy, and "directly responsible, under the general direction of the Secretary of the Navy, to the President of the United States."<ref>{{cite web  |title=Executive Order 8984 – Prescribing the Duties of the Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet and the Co-operative Duties of the Chief of Naval Operations  |publisher=The American Presidency Project  |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8984-prescribing-the-duties-the-commander-chief-the-united-states-fleet  |access-date=18 May 2024  |archive-date=18 May 2024  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518215146/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-8984-prescribing-the-duties-the-commander-chief-the-united-states-fleet  |url-status=live}}</ref> There was considerable overlap between the roles of COMINCH and CNO,{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=141}} and on Stark's advice,{{sfn|Burtness|Ober|2013|pp=669–670}} Roosevelt combined the duties of the two with Executive Order 9096.<ref>{{cite web |title=Executive Order 9096 – Reorganization of the Navy Department and the Naval Service Affecting the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet |date=12 March 1942 |publisher=The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-9096-reorganization-the-navy-department-and-the-naval-service-affecting |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518215145/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-9096-reorganization-the-navy-department-and-the-naval-service-affecting |url-status=live }}</ref> On 26 March, King succeeded Stark as CNO, becoming the only officer to hold this combined command. On the same date, Horne became the Vice Chief of Naval Operations.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=114–115}}{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=137}} Although King was both COMINCH and CNO, the two offices remained separate and distinct.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=357–358}} Stark became Commander, [[U.S. Naval Forces, Europe]].{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=142}} Edwards, Cooke and Horne remained with King for the duration of the war, but more junior officers were brought in for periods of up to a year and then returned to sea duty.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=116–117}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=154–155}} When King turned 64 on 23 November 1942, King wrote Roosevelt to say he had reached mandatory retirement age. Roosevelt replied with a note saying: "So what, old top? I may send you a birthday present." (The present was a framed photograph.){{sfn|Stoler|2008|p=70}}

[[File:80-G-K-14010 (25667487234).jpg|thumb|[[Joint Chiefs of Staff]] lunches were held every Wednesday. Left to right: General [[Henry H. Arnold]], Admiral [[William D. Leahy]], King, and General [[George C. Marshall]].|alt=Color photograph of four uniformed men seated at a lunch table]]

Stark left the JCS in March 1942 when King succeeded him as CNO, reducing its membership to three until July 1942. Marshall advocated a joint general staff, but in the face of opposition from King, he backed down on the idea of an executive head of the services. Instead, Marshall pressed for a senior officer to act as a JCS spokesperson and a liaison between the JCS and the President. He nominated Leahy for the post, hoping that a naval officer would be more acceptable to King. King remained opposed, but Roosevelt was convinced of the merits of the proposal. On 21 July 1942, Leahy was appointed Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy and became the fourth member of the JCS. As the senior officer, Leahy chaired its meetings, but he did not exercise any command authority.<ref>{{cite news |title=President Praises Leahy's Vichy Role |first=Thomas J. |last=Hamilton |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=July 26, 1942 |page=17 |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1942/07/26/223789252.html?pageNumber=17 |access-date=May 18, 2022 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003839/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1942/07/26/223789252.html?pageNumber=17 |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=184–185}} King and Marshall retained their direct access to the President.  King had thirty-two official meetings with Roosevelt at the White House in 1942, but only eight in 1943, nine in 1944 and just one in 1945.{{sfn|Buell|1998|p=171}}

====Civil-Naval relations====
Roosevelt was not above micromanaging the navy. For example, in early 1942 he sent explicit instructions to Admiral [[Thomas C. Hart]], the commander of the [[Asiatic Fleet]], detailing how he wanted surveillance patrols run.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=242}} Roosevelt granted Marshall broad authority to reorganize the [[United States Department of War|War Department]], but King's authority was more constrained. King, acting on a suggestion from Roosevelt that he "streamline" the Navy Department, ordered a restructure on 28 May. It was opposed by Knox and the [[Under Secretary of the Navy]], [[James V. Forrestal]], who saw it a challenge to their authority, and by the bureau chiefs, who feared a loss of their autonomy. Most importantly, it was opposed by Roosevelt, who, on 12 June, ordered Knox to cancel everything King had done.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=235–239}}{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|pp=142–143, 157, 163}} Roosevelt did assent to King's proposal to create the post of Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Aviation (DCNO (Air)), but in a note to Knox in August 1943 he wrote: "Tell Ernie once more: No reorganizing of the Navy Dept. set-up during the war. Let's win it first."{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=157}}

[[File:208-PU-70A-8 (25519787573).jpg|thumb|left|King looks on as [[James V. Forrestal]] takes the oath of office as 40th [[Secretary of the Navy]].|alt=Color photograph of three men, two of them in naval uniforms are at the right, the one at the center has his right hand raised, the third is in suit and tie at the left, who also has his right hand raised]]

With King reporting directly to Roosevelt and only under his "general supervision", Knox saw King as a threat to his authority. He attempted to remove King in 1942 by suggesting he assume command in the Pacific as COMINCH, but this was not possible because as a member of the JCS, King had to remain in Washington, D.C. The following year, Knox tried to have Horne, who dealt with most of the CNO work like preparing budgets and appearing before Congress, appointed as CNO. This too failed, as it required executive action by Roosevelt, and King elevated Edwards over Horne's head to the new position of deputy COMINCH and deputy CNO on 1 October 1944. Cooke replaced Edwards as chief of staff to the CNO.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=235–239}}{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|pp=142–143, 163}} Knox died from a [[heart attack]] on 28 April 1944, and Roosevelt nominated Forrestal as his replacement. As Under Secretary of the Navy, Forrestal was familiar with naval issues, and he had a good track record managing the navy's procurement program. He was unanimously confirmed by the Senate, but King and Forrestal clashed.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=449–451}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=417-438}}

====Ships and manpower====

The Navy had always thought in terms of ships, but more were on order than the Navy had personnel to crew them.{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=160}} The fleet grew faster than expected because plans assumed losses on the scale of 1942, but in fact they were much fewer.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=154–157}} With the Navy now dominated by aviators and submariners, the easiest target for ship cancellations were the battleships. In May 1942, King had indefinitely deferred construction of five battleships, including all the {{sclass|Montana|battleship|4}}, in favor of more aircraft carriers and cruisers. King had opposed construction of the ''Montana'' class while he was on the General Board on the grounds that they were too big to fit through the [[Panama Canal]].{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=34–35}}

Aircraft carriers were another matter; King strongly opposed Roosevelt's proposal in August 1942 to defer the {{sclass|Midway|aircraft carrier|2}}s on the grounds that they would consume too many resources and were unlikely to be completed until after the war. Eventually Roosevelt authorized them, but his forecast proved correct.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=34–35}} However King gave way to Roosevelt on the issue of [[escort carrier]]s; while he believed that nothing smaller than the {{sclass|Essex|aircraft carrier|2}} would be useful in the Pacific war, he accepted Roosevelt's argument that it was important to get new aircraft carriers in commission quickly.{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=146}} In 1943, with the war against the U-boats being won, King canceled 200 of the 1,000 destroyer escorts on order, but backed off canceling another 200 when the Bureau of Ships protested.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=100–101}}
[[File:USS Casablanca (ACV-55) about to be launched on 5 April 1943 (NH 75634).jpg|thumb|The [[escort carrier]] {{USS|Casablanca|ACV-55|6}}, at right, about to be launched at [[Henry J. Kaiser]]'s shipyard in [[Vancouver, Washington]], on 5 April 1943. Two of her 49 sister ships are under construction at left.|alt=Black and white photograph of numerous people standing on a concrete surface, in front of three ships under construction with cranes on top of them]]

By March 1944, it was estimated that the Navy would reach its manpower ceiling by August, and would require 340,000 more sailors by the end of the year for ships under construction, which included nine {{sclass|Essex|aircraft carrier|2}}s.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=130–134}} On 2 July, King asked the Joint Chiefs to approve an increase of 390,000 men. The Army did not object, as it was more than 300,000 over its own personnel ceiling, and needed assault shipping for the [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|Philippines campaign]]. It was noted that this would exacerbate the national labor shortage and adversely affect the munitions industry, and drastic measures might be required if the Army ran into more manpower difficulties, as indeed occurred.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=134–138}}

===War in the Atlantic===
{{see also|Second Happy Time}}
When war was declared on Germany, an attack on coastal shipping by U-boats was anticipated, as this was what had happened in World War I. On 12 December 1941, German U-boat commander, {{lang|de|[[Vizeadmiral]]}} [[Karl Dönitz]], ordered an attack, codenamed Operation {{lang|de|Paukenschlag}} ("Roll of the drums" or "drumbeat").{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=125–126}} The following day, King issued a warning to all Atlantic commands of an impending German U-boat attack.<ref name="The Drumbeat Mystery">{{cite magazine |last=Offley |first=Ed |title=The Drumbeat Mystery |date=February 2022 |magazine=[[Naval History]] |issn=1042-1920 |volume=36 |issue=1 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2022/february/drumbeat-mystery |access-date=6 June 2024 |archive-date=5 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605235104/https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2022/february/drumbeat-mystery |url-status=live }}</ref> This did not occur immediately, because the U-boats had been withdrawn from the Western Atlantic and priority was accorded to operations in the Mediterranean. Some use was made of this respite to lay a defensive [[naval mine]]field and erect protective harbor [[anti-submarine net]]s and [[boom (navigational barrier)|boom]]s.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=125–126}} Only the long-range [[Type IX submarine|Type IX]] and some [[Type VII submarine]]s could reach the Western Atlantic, so only six to eight U-boats were on station of the East coast between January and June 1942.<ref name="The Drumbeat Mystery" />
[[File:Allied tanker torpedoed.jpg|thumb|left|''Dixie Arrow'' torpedoed off [[Cape Hatteras]] by {{GS|U-71|1940|2}}, {{nowrap|26 March 1942}}|alt=Black and white photograph of a ship broken in half at the center and sinking with fumes emerging from it, while at sea]]

The carnage began on 12 January, when a British steamer was sunk {{convert|300|nmi}} off [[Cape Cod]] by {{GS|U-123|1940|2}}. By the end of the month, U-boats had sunk thirteen ships totaling {{convert|95,000|grt|lk=on}}. Few of the merchant ships were armed and those that were, were no match for the U-boats. Each U-boat carried fourteen [[torpedo]]es, including some of the new [[G7e torpedo|electric model]], which left no air bubbles in its wake, and had a deck gun capable of sinking many merchant ships.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=126–132}} There was no seaboard blackout, as this was a politically sensitive issue—coastal cities resisted, citing the loss of tourism revenue.{{sfn|Gannon|1991|pp=186–187}} Waterfront lights and signs switched off on 18 April 1942, and the Army declared a [[Blackout (wartime)|blackout]] of coastal cities on 18 May. The Germans had broken the American and British codes and sometimes lay in wait.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=126–132}} Meanwhile, the German Navy added an extra wheel to its [[Enigma machine]]s in April and the Allies lost the ability to decrypt its signals for ten months.{{sfn|Miller|Jappert|Jackson|2023|p=133}}

[[File:USS England (DE-635) underway off San Francisco on 9 February 1944 (19-N-60938).jpg|thumb|The [[destroyer escort]] {{USS|England|DE-635|6}} off San Francisco on 9 February 1944|alt=Black and white photograph of a ship at sea]]
The first requirement of an effective anti-submarine campaign was anti-submarine escorts. In 1940, when he was a member of the General Board, King had recommended copying the {{convert|327|ft|adj=on}} [[Treasury-class cutter]] as an anti-submarine escort. As commander-in-chief of the Atlantic Fleet he had pressed Stark to secure such craft, but Stark replied that the President did not approve. Roosevelt, who had been involved in the development of the [[submarine chaser]], a much smaller vessel, during World War I, believed that small craft would be sufficient to deal with the U-boats, and that they could be acquired at the last minute, so there was no need to interfere with the capital-ship building program. While acknowledging that small craft like submarine chasers had their uses, King pointed out that escort duty required vessels that could cope with rough weather and had sufficient crewmen to mount round-the-clock [[Watchkeeping|watches]].{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=446–448}}

The ideal escort was the destroyer, but were required for escorting troopships and trans-Atlantic convoys, and protecting the warships of the Atlantic and Pacific fleets. They also had features not required for convoy escort duty that slowed their rate of production. A cut-down version of a destroyer, known as a [[destroyer escort]], was developed specifically for anti-submarine warfare that could be produced in large numbers. The first of these was ordered in July 1941, and King asked for a thousand of them in June 1942, but higher priorities for [[landing craft]] resulted in the first of them not being delivered until April 1943.{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|p=145}}{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=446–448}}
[[File:Lot-4263-45 (22811482849).jpg|thumb|left|King looks on as Mrs. Frank Knox christens the destroyer {{USS|Frank Knox|DD 742|6}} at the [[Bath Iron Works]], Maine, on 17 September 1944.|alt=Black and white photograph of a men in a naval uniform jacket and white cap at the left, a women with a fur coat and hat at the centre]]
As escorts became available, a system of coastal convoys could be instituted. King convened a board with representatives from COMINCH, CINCLANT, and the [[Sea Frontier]]s to devise a comprehensive system. "Escort is not just one way of handling the submarine menace," King opined, "it is the only way that gives any promise of success. The so-called hunting and patrol operations have time and again proved futile."{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=288}} The board reported on 27 March. In May 1942, King established a day and night interlocking convoy system running from Newport, Rhode Island, to [[Key West, Florida]], and by August 1942, the submarine threat to shipping in US coastal waters had been contained. The same effect occurred when convoys were extended to the Caribbean.{{sfn|Morison|1947|pp=255–258}}

As time went on, King gradually assumed more control over the anti-submarine campaign. He designated Edwards as anti-submarine coordinator, and in May 1942 he had the Convoy and Routing Section transferred from the office of the CNO to the office of the COMINCH. An anti-submarine warfare unit was established as part of the COMINCH staff. This led to the establishment of the Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Research Group, which conducted [[operations research]] in cooperation with the scientists of the [[National Defense Research Committee]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=449–451}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=347–404}} He also established, on the advice of Royal Navy officers, an operational intelligence center (OIC) that tracked U-boat movements and provided warning to merchant shipping.{{sfn|Miller|Jappert|Jackson|2023|p=135}} On 20 May 1943, he created the [[United States Tenth Fleet|Tenth Fleet]], under his own command, to coordinate the anti-submarine campaign.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=462–465}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=347–356}} Between July 1942 and May 1943, German and Italian submarines sank 780 merchant ships totaling {{convert|4.5|e6grt}}, but ships were being built faster than the submarines could sink them.{{sfn|Ross|1997|p=49}} In the same period, a monthly average of 13 submarines were sunk, compared to 18 to 23 being built each month.{{sfn|Morison|1947|p=407}}

[[File:PB4Y-1 VB-103 summer 1943.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Navy [[Consolidated PB4Y-1 Liberator]] of [[VPB-103|Bombing Squadron 103]] (VB-103) en route to the Bay of Biscay in the summer of 1943|alt=Color photograph of a plane painted white flying above scattered clouds and farmland]]
Another answer to the U-Boat menace was long-range maritime patrol aircraft. This was complicated by inter-service squabbling over command and control. The aircraft belonged to the [[Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command]], but the mission was the Navy's, and there were differences in doctrine between the two. Arnold resisted assigning  aircraft to operational control of the sea frontier commanders, and King rejected a proposal to place all air assets, Army and Navy, under the Army Air Forces. Instead, Marshall agreed to transfer the long-range [[B-24 Liberator]] aircraft to the Navy. Arnold and [[Secretary of War]] [[Henry L. Stimson]] were apprehensive about this, and sought reassurances that the Navy was not seeking a role in [[strategic bombing]]. An acceptable agreement was negotiated, and the aircraft were transferred on 1 September 1943, except for some in the UK, which followed in November.{{sfn|King|Whitehill|1952|pp=464–471}}

King accorded warship construction priority over merchant shipbuilding. The JCS approved {{convert|2.8|e6grt}} of new [[Liberty ship]]s for 1943 on condition that it did not interfere with warship construction. The merchant shipbuilding program only went ahead because industrial capacity rose to the point where this became possible. The JCS rejected further increases in merchant ships because steel was in short supply. There were also critical shortages of rubber, which the Army needed for truck tires and tank tracks, and high-octane [[aviation gasoline]], which the Army Air Forces needed for its planes. King concurred with the [[War Production Board]]'s plans to give priority to [[synthetic rubber]] production, but rejected proposals to increase the priority of aviation gasoline production on the grounds that it would interfere with the destroyer escort program.{{sfn|Davidson|1996|pp=80–81}}

===War in Europe===
In keeping with the agreed "[[Germany first]]" strategy, the Joint Chiefs proposed to build up a force of 48 [[division (military)|division]]s in the UK ([[Operation Bolero]]) for a landing in France in 1943 ([[Operation Roundup (1942)|Operation Roundup]]). The U.S. Army planners realized that the Western [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] did not have the resources to challenge Germany on land and most of the fighting would have to be done by the [[Soviet Union]]. Keeping the Soviet Union in the war was therefore crucial. If the USSR looked like it was about to collapse, an emergency landing would be made in France in 1942 ([[Operation Sledgehammer]]).{{sfn|Stoler|2003|pp=77–83}}

[[File:American and Allied leaders at international conferences - NARA - 292624.tif|thumb|left|[[Cairo Conference]] in November 1943. King stands behind Roosevelt|alt=Black and white photograph. Three men are seated on chairs in a garden, the one at the right in a white suit, bowtie and a hat placed on his right leg; the one at the centre is in a suit and tie; the one at the left is in army uniform with a cap placed on his left leg. Multiple men in varying military uniforms stand behind them]]
The British chiefs rejected Sledgehammer and instead proposed an invasion of [[French North Africa]] ([[Operation Gymnast]]).{{sfn|Strange|1984|pp=453–458}} The U.S. Army planners, led by Major General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], the Chief of the War Plans Division,{{sfn|Cline|1951|p=84}} concluded that the next best way to help the Soviets was an offensive against Japan in the Pacific, which would prevent the Japanese [[Kwantung Army]] in Manchuria from attacking the Soviet Union in Siberia.{{sfn|Stoler|2003|pp=77–83}} King concurred with this proposal; he did not see any value in leaving resources idle in the Atlantic when they could be utilized in the Pacific, especially when "it was doubtful when—if ever—the British would consent to a cross-Channel operation".{{sfn|Morison|1957|pp=13–14}} Roosevelt did not agree, and he ordered the Joint Chiefs to carry out Operation Gymnast.{{sfn|Stoler|2003|pp=84–87}}

[[Landing ship]]s and [[landing craft]] enjoyed the highest priority for construction in 1942,{{sfn|Love|1980|p=151}} but after the abandonment of Sledgehammer and Roundup, King diverted many of them to the Pacific. At the [[First Quebec Conference]] in September 1943, King promised to provide 110 [[Landing Ship, Tank|LST]], 58 [[Landing Craft, Infantry|LCI]], 146 [[Landing Craft, Tank|LCT]], 250 [[Landing Craft, Mechanized|LCM]] and 470 [[landing craft, vehicle, personnel|LCVP]] for [[Operation Overlord]], the invasion of France in 1944. When the Overlord plan was enlarged to five divisions in early 1944, this was not enough. There was also a discrepancy between British and American calculations of the capacity of the available landing ships and landing craft.{{sfn|Morison|1957|pp=52–57}}

[[File:13 pointe du hoc 1944 debarquement normandie.jpg|thumb|With (left to right) [[Henry H. Arnold]], [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], [[George C. Marshall]], and [[Omar N. Bradley]] at [[Pointe du Hoc]], Normandy, on June 12, 1944|alt=Black and white photograph, five men in varying military uniforms are in the foreground in front of some other men and a forest]]
Marshall sent Major General [[John E. Hull]] and King sent Cooke to Europe, where they met with Rear Admirals [[Alan G. Kirk]], the commander of the Western Naval Task Force (Task Force 122) and [[John L. Hall Jr.]], the commander of the XI Amphibious Force. Together they resolved the issues surrounding loading capacity and landing craft availability, and Eisenhower postponed [[Operation Dragoon|Operation Anvil]], the landing in Southern France, allowing more amphibious vessels to be released from the Mediterranean. Ultimately, King provided 168 LST, 124 LCI, 247 LCT, 216 LCM and 1,089 LCVP for Overlord. Hall took the opportunity to lobby for more naval gunfire support ships. King had assumed that the Royal Navy would provide this, but the Royal Navy was keeping a strong force in reserve with the [[Home Fleet]] in case the German Navy sortied. King sent the battleships {{USS|Nevada|BB-36|6}}, {{USS|Texas|BB-35|2}} and {{USS|Arkansas|BB-33|2}} and a [[squadron (naval)|squadron]] of destroyers.{{sfn|Morison|1957|pp=52–57}}

===War in the Pacific===
King took the lead in developing a strategy for the war in the Pacific. Following Japan's defeat at the [[Battle of Midway]] in June 1942, King proposed an operation in the [[Solomon Islands]]. After some discussion of command arrangements, Marshall suggested moving the boundary of [[South West Pacific Area]] to transfer the southern Solomons to the [[South Pacific Area]]. The two theater commanders, General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and Vice Admiral [[Robert L. Ghormley]], expressed doubts about the operation, but King instructed Nimitz to proceed.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=140–149}} The Marines successfully [[Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu–Tanambogo|landed on Guadalcanal]] on 7 August, but on the night of 8/9 August the U.S. and [[Royal Australian Navy]] suffered a severe defeat in the [[Battle of Savo Island]], losing four cruisers.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|p=174}} King tried to suppress the news of the disaster.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=222–224}}

As the situation in the South Pacific went from bad to worse, King attempted to get Marshall and Arnold to provide additional resources, but their priority was [[Operation Torch]], the landing in North West Africa.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=183–185}} In the end, Roosevelt ordered the Joint Chiefs to hold Guadalcanal.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|p=193}} On 16 October, King assented to Nimitz's request to relieve Ghormley, and replace him with Vice Admiral [[William F. Halsey]]. More aggressive leadership brought results, but at a cost: in the [[Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands]] on 26 October, the aircraft carrier {{USS|Enterprise|CV-6|6}} was damaged and the {{USS|Hornet|CV-8|6}} was sunk.{{sfn|Love|1980|pp=156–157}} The tide gradually turned in November as reinforcements arrived, although the fighting on Guadalcanal continued until 8 February 1943.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=196–197}}

[[File:NH 62778 USS Indianapolis (CA-35).tif|thumb|left|King (center) with Admirals [[Chester W. Nimitz]] (left) and [[Raymond A. Spruance]] (right) on the latter's flagship, {{USS|Indianapolis|CA-35|6}}, on 18 July 1944|alt=Black and white photograph of three men with caps standing on a ship's deck]]
On behalf of the JCS, King took the lead in formulating strategy for the Pacific war. In March 1943, he called representatives from the [[South Pacific Area]], [[Central Pacific Area]] and [[Southwest Pacific Area]] together for the Pacific Military Conference, which decided on the tasks for 1943.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=312–314}} On 25 September 1943, King traveled to [[Pearl Harbor]] for his first meeting with Nimitz there. First item on the agenda was [[Operation Galvanic]], the campaign to capture [[Tarawa Atoll]] and [[Nauru]]. Admiral [[Raymond A. Spruance]], the commander of the [[Fifth Fleet]], surprised King with a paper from the commander of the [[V Amphibious Corps]], Major General [[Holland M. Smith]], which argued that Nauru was too well-defended. Smith and Spruance recommended seizing [[Makin Atoll]] instead. King was reluctant to do so but eventually agreed, and secured the concurrence of the other Joint Chiefs.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=411}}

King also met with Rear Admiral [[Charles A. Lockwood]], the commander of the Pacific Fleet's submarines. Lockwood told King about problems the submariners were having with the [[Mark 14 torpedo]], which had both [[Magnetic pistol|magnetic]] and contact exploders. Tests that he  had recently conducted had confirmed reports from the submarine skippers that neither exploder worked properly, and he secured King's permission to modify the torpedoes at Pearl Harbor rather than wait for the Bureau of Ordnance to provide fixes. King raised the prospect of promoting Lockwood to vice admiral. When Nimitz did not give Lockwood a spot promotion, King had Lockwood promoted when he returned to Washington, D.C. King had been impressed by the German G7e electric torpedoes, some of which had been salvaged after running ashore, and prompted the Bureau of Ordnance to develop an electric torpedo. The result was the [[Mark 18 torpedo]], but it was beset by many developmental and production problems.{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=412–413}}{{sfn|Blair|1975|pp=275–281}}

After the [[Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign]], King then considered the capture of the [[Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]] and [[Chuuk Lagoon|Truk]], with the ultimate objective being China, which was holding down the major part of the Japanese Army, and from whence King anticipated that the final assault on Japan would be launched. King pressed for the capture of the Mariana Islands, which could serve both as a naval base astride Japanese communications and as a base for aerial bombardment of the Japanese home islands by the Army's long-range [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress]] bombers.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=546–548}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=438–440}} A major strategy issue in late 1944 was whether to follow the capture of the Marianas with an assault on [[Luzon]] or [[Formosa]].{{sfn|Hayes|1982|p=603}} King favored Formosa, but he was eventually convinced that Nimitz and MacArthur's plan to take Luzon followed by [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] was preferable.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=623–624}}

King emphasized the global strategic priorities for securing the sustainable peace in Europe while setting the sequence of priorities for eventual victory in Asia. He once complained that the Pacific deserved 30 percent of Allied resources but was getting only 15 percent.<ref>{{cite web |title=H-008-5 Admiral Ernest J. King |publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/about-us/leadership/director/directors-corner/h-grams/h-gram-008/h-008-5.html |access-date=May 23, 2024 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003920/https://www.history.navy.mil/about-us/leadership/director/directors-corner/h-grams/h-gram-008/h-008-5.html |url-status=live }}</ref> 
His advocacy for using Soviet and Chinese armies to defeat the Axis Tripartite also upset the politically charged debates within the Combined and Joint Chiefs of Staff. At the [[Cairo Conference]] in 1943, he was accused by British [[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] Sir [[Alan Brooke]] of favoring the Pacific war, the argument became heated. The combative Lieutenant General [[Joseph Stilwell]] wrote: "Brooke got nasty, and King got good and sore. King almost climbed over the table at Brooke. God, he was mad. I wished he had socked him."{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|p=370}}{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=428}} One of King's daughters was quoted as saying of her father: "he is the most even tempered person in the United States Navy. He is always in a rage."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.history.navy.mil/about-us/leadership/director/directors-corner/h-grams/h-gram-008/h-008-5.html|title=H-008-5: Admiral Ernest J. King—Chief of Naval Operations, 1942|publisher=Naval History and Heritage Command|author=Samuel J. Cox|date=July 2017|access-date=18 July 2024|archive-date=9 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709100058/https://www.history.navy.mil/about-us/leadership/director/directors-corner/h-grams/h-gram-008/h-008-5.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
King's focus on China upset the deliberations concerning the sequence of priorities in the [[Pacific Campaign]], which further frustrated Nimitz in relations with General [[Douglas MacArthur]], among other Allied Commanders. King empowered temporary Rear Admiral [[Milton E. Miles]] to act as his personal authority in China, which upset transatlantic relationships at the highest levels of Allied command {{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=396–420}}

===Relations with the British===
[[File:American and Allied leaders at international conferences - NARA - 292627.jpg|thumb|King stands behind Roosevelt at the [[Octagon Conference]] in Quebec in September 1944.|alt=Black and white photograph of two rows of men. Six men each are seated and standing in varying attire]]
The deployment of a British fleet to the Pacific was a political matter. The measure was forced on Churchill by the British Chiefs of Staff, not merely to re-establish British presence in the region, but to mitigate any impression in the US that the British were doing nothing to help defeat Japan. At the [[Octagon Conference]] in Quebec in September 1944, King was adamant that naval operations against Japan remain focused upon the final war aims of stabilization in Europe and Asia. He resisted efforts to intermix British and American naval forces, leading some historians portray King as suffering from [[Anglophobia]]. Such a characterization failed to reflect the historical understanding and deeper commitment King demonstrated as a strategist seeking to win as quickly and efficiently as possible in the global war at sea.{{sfn|Coles|2001|pp=105–107}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=13-23 and 358-361}}

King cited the logistical and technical difficulties in maintaining British naval forces in the Pacific, details that he was intimately familiar with as a former aircraft carrier captain. The Royal Navy was designed for short-range operations in a cool climate; in the Pacific it would require its own ammunition and refrigerated cargo ships. Even American-supplied aircraft could not be used unmodified.{{sfn|Coles|2001|pp=120–125}} Roosevelt and Leahy overruled him, and the Joint Chiefs accepted the British offer provided that the fleet would be fully self-supporting.{{sfn|Hayes|1982|pp=637–639}} Despite King's reservations, the [[British Pacific Fleet]] acquitted itself well against Japan in the last months of the war. King's concerns about logistics were valid, and the British Pacific Fleet was not fully self-supporting.{{sfn|Coles|2001|pp=127–129}}{{sfn|Kohnen|2024|pp=13-23 and 358-361}}

Like most Americans, King was opposed to operations that would assist the British, French and Dutch in reclaiming their pre-war overseas possessions in South East Asia.{{sfn|Coles|2001|pp=112–114}} Although frequently described as Anglophobic, King was proud of his British ancestry, enjoyed his visits to the United Kingdom and established good relations with many of his British colleagues.{{sfn|Coles|2001|pp=105–107}}{{sfn|Whitehill|1957|p=217}} When a [[Royal Air Force]] officer complained that King was anti-British, Field Marshal Sir [[John Dill]] said King was pro-American rather than anti-British. When Dill was in hospital, King visited him every day.{{sfn|Parker|1984|p=162}}

 When Admiral Sir [[James Somerville]] was placed in charge of the British naval delegation in Washington, D.C., in October 1944 he managed—to the surprise of almost everyone—to get on very well with the notoriously abrasive and anti-British King.<ref name=odnb>{{cite ODNB |title=Sir James Somerville|year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/36191 }}</ref> General [[Hastings Ismay]] described King as:{{blockquote|... tough as nails and carried himself as stiffly as a poker. He was blunt and stand-offish, almost to the point of rudeness. At the start, he was intolerant and suspicious of all things British, especially the Royal Navy; but he was almost equally intolerant and suspicious of the American Army.  War against Japan was the problem to which he had devoted the study of a lifetime, and he resented the idea of American resources being used for any other purpose than to destroy the Japanese. He mistrusted Churchill's powers of advocacy, and was apprehensive that he would wheedle President Roosevelt into neglecting the war in the Pacific ... As we all got to know each other better, King mellowed and became much more friendly. The last time I saw him was at a big official dinner in Potsdam in July 1945 when, to my amazement, he proposed my health in very flattering terms. I was as proud as a subaltern getting his first mention in despatches.{{sfn|Ismay|1960|p=253}}}}

==Retirement and death==
On 14 December 1944, Congress passed legislation creating the [[five-star rank]]s of [[Fleet admiral (United States)|fleet admiral]] and [[General of the Army (United States)|general of the army]]. Each service was authorized to have up to four officers of five-star rank. Leahy was promoted to fleet admiral on 15 December, and Marshall, King, MacArthur, Nimitz, Eisenhower and Arnold followed on successive days. When King was promoted on 17 December, he became the second of four men in the U.S. Navy to hold the rank of fleet admiral, and the third most senior officer in the U.S. military.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|pp=413–414}}

[[File:King, Forrestal, Nimitz 1945.jpg|thumb|left|King, Forrestal and Nimitz on 21 November 1945|alt=Black and white photograph of three men in front of a wall map. The one at the centre is in a striped suit and tie holding a pipe, both the men to his right and left are in a naval uniform jacket]]

President [[Harry S. Truman]]'s Executive Order 9635 of 29 September 1945 revoked Executive Orders 8984 and 9096 and restored the primacy of the Secretary of the Navy and the CNO. The office of COMINCH was abolished on 10 October.{{sfn|Hone|Utz|2023|pp=168–169}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Executive Order 9635—Organization of the Navy Department and the Naval Establishment |publisher=The American Presidency Project |url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-9635-organization-the-navy-department-and-the-naval-establishment |access-date=13 May 2024 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518011041/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/executive-order-9635-organization-the-navy-department-and-the-naval-establishment |url-status=live }}</ref> It was King's wish that Nimitz succeed him as CNO, but Forrestal wanted Edwards. King forced the issue by writing to Truman via Forrestal. Truman agreed to Nimitz's appointment, Forrestal asserted his authority by limiting Nimitz's tenure to two years instead of the usual four, and making the change of command earlier than King wanted.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|pp=461–462}}

Although King left active duty on 15 December, he officially remained in the Navy, as five-star officers were  given active duty pay for life. The pay of all flag officers was the same until 1955, when Congress raised that of vice admirals and admirals, but that of five-star officers remained the same. Nor was it lifted during subsequent pay raises, and after they died the widows of five-star officers received a pension based on the rank of rear admiral.{{sfn|Buell|1995|p=388}}

[[File:Kingfull.jpg|thumb|Grave of Admiral King|alt=Color photograph of a gravestone in a cemetery. The gravestone reads: Five stars. "ERNEST JOSEPH KING; U. S. N.; NOV. 23, 1878 - JUNE 25, 1956; MARTHA EGERTON KING; JAN. 9, 1880 - DEC. 6, 1969]]
In retirement, King lived in Washington, D.C. He was active in his early post-retirement, serving as president of the [[Naval Historical Foundation]] from 1946 to 1949,<ref>{{cite web  |title=A History of the Naval Historical Foundation  |publisher=Naval Historical Foundation  |url=https://navyhistory.org/2022/12/a-history-of-the-naval-historical-foundation/  |access-date=13 May 2024  |archive-date=15 May 2024  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515222231/https://navyhistory.org/2022/12/a-history-of-the-naval-historical-foundation/  |url-status=live}}</ref> and he wrote the foreword to and assisted in the writing of ''Battle Stations! Your Navy In Action'', a photographic history book depicting the U.S. Navy's operations in World War II that was published in 1946.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Book Reviews – ''Battle Stations! Your Navy In Action'' |magazine=[[Proceedings (magazine)|United States Naval Institute Proceedings]]  |date=September 1946 |volume=72 |issue=523 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1946/september/book-reviews |access-date=13 May 2024}}</ref> With [[Walter Muir Whitehill]], he co-wrote an autobiography (in the third person), ''Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record'', which was published in 1952.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|pp=461–462}}

King suffered a debilitating stroke in August 1947, and subsequent ill-health ultimately forced him to stay in naval hospitals at [[Walter Reed National Military Medical Center|Bethesda, Maryland]], and at the [[Portsmouth Naval Shipyard]] in [[Kittery, Maine]].{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=508–509}}{{sfn|Whitehill|1957|p=213}} King died of a heart attack in Kittery on 25 June 1956, at the age of 77. His body was flown to Washington, D.C., and after lying in state at the [[Washington National Cathedral|National Cathedral]], King was buried in the [[United States Naval Academy Cemetery]] at [[Annapolis, Maryland]]. His wife Mattie was buried beside him in 1969.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|pp=463–464}}{{sfn|Whitehill|1957|pp=224–226}} His papers are in the Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ernest J. King Papers 1897–1981, MS 437 |publisher=Nimitz Library at the United States Naval Academy |url=https://www.usna.edu/Library/sca/man-findingaids/view.php?f=MS_437 |access-date=8 May 2024 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003840/https://www.usna.edu/Library/sca/man-findingaids/view.php?f=MS_437 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Dates of rank==
* [[United States Naval Academy]]  [[naval cadet]] – June 1901
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
![[Ensign (rank)#United States|Ensign]]
![[Lieutenant, Junior Grade|Lieutenant (junior grade)]]
![[Lieutenant (navy)|Lieutenant]]
![[Lieutenant commander (United States)|Lieutenant commander]]
![[Commander (United States)|Commander]]
![[Captain (U.S. Navy)|Captain]]
|-
!O-1
!O-2
!O-3
!O-4
!O-5
!O-6
|-
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O1 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O2 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O3 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O4 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O5 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O6 insignia.svg|60px]]
|-
!7 June 1903
!'''Never Held'''
!7 June 1906
!1 July 1913
!1 July 1917
!21 September 1918
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
![[Rear admiral (United States)#Rear admiral|Rear admiral]]
![[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice admiral]]
![[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]]
![[Fleet admiral (United States)|Fleet admiral]]
|-
!O-8
!O-9
!O-10
!Special Grade
|-
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O8 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O9 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O10 insignia.svg|60px]]
|  style="text-align:center; width:16%;"|[[File:US Navy O11 insignia.svg|60px]]
|-
!26 April 1933
!29 January 1938
!1 February 1941
!17 December 1944
|}

King never held the rank of lieutenant (junior grade) although, for administrative reasons, his service record annotates his promotion to both lieutenant (junior grade) and lieutenant on the same day.

{{center|Source:{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=xxii–xxv}}}}

==Awards and decorations==

{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|colspan=4|[[File:Naval Aviator Badge.png|250px]]
|-
|colspan=4|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Navy Cross ribbon.svg|width=103}} {{Ribbon devices|number=2|type=award-star|ribbon=Navy Distinguished Service ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Sampson Medal ribbon.JPG|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Spanish Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Philippine Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Mexican Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=World War I Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|other_device=a|ribbon=American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=National Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=103}}
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan=3|[[Naval aviation|Naval aviator]] wings
|-
|colspan=1|[[Navy Cross]]
|colspan=2|[[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]<br />with two award [[5/16 inch star|stars]]
|-
|[[Sampson Medal]]
|[[Spanish Campaign Medal]]
|[[Philippine Campaign Medal]]
|-
|[[Mexican Service Medal]]
|[[World War I Victory Medal (United States)|World War I Victory Medal]]<br />with "Atlantic Fleet" clasp
|[[American Defense Service Medal]]<br />with [["A" Device]]
|-
|[[American Campaign Medal]]
|[[World War II Victory Medal (United States)|World War II Victory Medal]]
|[[National Defense Service Medal]]
|}
{{center|Source:{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=540–541}} }}

=== Navy Cross citation ===
[[File:Navy_Cross.png|left|40px]]
<blockquote>The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Captain Ernest Joseph King, United States Navy, for distinguished service in the line of his profession during World War I, as Assistant Chief of Staff of the Atlantic Fleet during World War I.<ref name="Military Times" /></blockquote>

=== Navy Distinguished Service Medal citation (first award) ===
[[File:NavyDSM.png|left|40px]]
<blockquote>The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Captain Ernest Joseph King, United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States, as Officer in charge of the salvaging of the U.S.S. S-51, from 16 October 1925 to 8 July 1926.<ref name="Military Times" /></blockquote>

=== Navy Distinguished Service Medal citation (second award) ===
[[File:NavyDSM.png|left|40px]]
<blockquote>The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Gold Star in lieu of a Second Award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Captain Ernest Joseph King, United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States as Commanding Officer of the Salvage Force entrusted with the raising of the U.S.S. S-4, sunk as a result of a collision off Provincetown, Massachusetts, 17 December 1927. Largely through his untiring energy, efficient administration and judicious decisions this most difficult task, under extremely adverse conditions, was brought to a prompt and successful conclusion.<ref name="Military Times" /></blockquote>

=== Navy Distinguished Service Medal citation (third award) ===
[[File:NavyDSM.png|left|40px]]
<blockquote>The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting a Second Gold Star in lieu of a Third Award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Fleet Admiral Ernest Joseph King, United States Navy, for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States as Commander in Chief of the United States Fleet from 20 December 1941, and concurrently as Chief of Naval Operations from 18 March 1942 to 10 October 1945. During the above periods, Fleet Admiral King, in his dual capacity, exercised complete military control of the naval forces of the United States Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard and directed all activities of these forces in conjunction with the U.S. Army and our Allies to bring victory to the United States. As the United States Naval Member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combined Chiefs of Staff, he coordinated the naval strength of this country with all agencies of the United States and of the Allied Nations, and with exceptional vision, driving energy, and uncompromising devotion to duty, he fulfilled his tremendous responsibility of command and direction of the greatest naval force the world has ever seen and the simultaneous expansion of all naval facilities in the prosecution of the war. With extraordinary foresight, sound judgment, and brilliant strategic genius, he exercised a guiding influence in the Allied strategy of victory. Analyzing with astute military acumen the multiple complexity of large-scale combined operations and the paramount importance of amphibious warfare, Fleet Admiral King exercised a guiding influence in the formation of all operational and logistic plans and achieved complete coordination between the U.S. Navy and all Allied military and naval forces. His outstanding qualities of leadership throughout the greatest period of crisis in the history of our country were an inspiration to the forces under his command and to all associated with him.<ref name="Military Times">{{cite web |title=Ernest King – Recipient |url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/10319#52744 |publisher=Military Times |access-date=3 April 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810003942/https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/10319#52744 |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

===Foreign awards===
King was also the recipient of several [[Authorized foreign decorations of the United States military|foreign awards and decorations]] (shown in order of acceptance and if more than one award for a country, placed in order of precedence):{{sfn|Buell|1995|pp=540–541}}

{|
|-
|[[File:Order of the Bath UK ribbon.svg|60px]]
|Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Bath]] (United Kingdom) 1945
|-
|[[File:Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg|60px]]
|Grand Cross of the [[Légion d'honneur]] (France) 1945
|-
|[[File:GRE Order of George I - Grand Cross BAR.png|60px]]
|Grand Cross of the [[Order of George I]] (Greece) 1946
|-
|[[File:Order of Orange-Nassau ribbon - Knight Grand Cross.svg|60px]]
|Knight Grand Cross with Swords of the [[Order of Orange-Nassau]] (Netherlands) 1948
|-
|[[File:Cavaliere di gran Croce BAR.svg|60px]]
|Knight of the Grand Cross of the [[Military Order of Italy]] 1948
|-
|[[File:Order of Naval Merit - Grand Officer (Brazil) - ribbon bar.png|60px]]
|[[Order of Naval Merit (Brazil)]], Grand Officer 1943
|-
|[[File:Order of Abdon Calderon First Class.svg|60px]]
|[[Order of Abdon Calderón|Estrella Abdon Calderon]] ([[Ecuador]]) 1943
|-
|[[File:BEL Kroonorde Grootofficier BAR.svg|60px]]<span style="position:relative; top: 0px; left: -23px; display: inline-block; width: 0;">[[File:UK MID 1920-94.svg|20px]]</span>
|Grand Officer of the [[Order of the Crown (Belgium)|Order of the Crown]] with palm (1948)
|-
|[[File:PAN Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa - Commander BAR.png|60px]]
|Commander of the [[Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] ([[Panama]]) 1929
|-
|[[File:Ufficiale OCI BAR.svg|60px]]
|Officer of the [[Order of the Crown of Italy]] 1933
|-
|[[File:Order of Naval Merit (Cuba) - ribbon bar.png|60px]]
|[[Order of Naval Merit (Cuba)]] 1943
|-
|[[File:Order of Precious Tripod with Special Grand Cordon ribbon.png|60px]]
|[[Order of the Sacred Tripod]] ([[Republic of China (1912–1949)|China]]) 1945
|-
|[[File:Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 ribbon.svg|60px]]
|[[Croix de guerre 1939–1945|Croix de guerre]] (France) (1944)
|-
|[[File:BEL Croix de Guerre 1944 ribbon.svg|60px]]
|[[War Cross (Belgium)|Croix de Guerre]] (Belgium) (1948)
|}

== Legacy ==
* The [[guided missile destroyer]] {{USS|King|DDG-41|6}} was named in his honor.{{sfn|Borneman|2012|p=491}}
* Two public schools in his hometown of [[Lorain, Ohio]], have been named after him: ([[Admiral King High School]]) until it was merged with the city's other public high school to form [[Lorain High School]] in 2010, and Admiral King Elementary School.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Expansion |publisher=Lorain City Schools |url=https://www.lorainschools.org/TheExpansion |access-date=15 May 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515232444/https://www.lorainschools.org/TheExpansion |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In 1956, schools located on the U.S. Naval Bases and Air Stations were given names of U.S. heroes of the past. E.J. King High School, the Department of Defense high school on [[U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo|Sasebo Naval Base]], in Japan, is named for him.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Our School |publisher=Department of Defense Education Activity |url=https://ejkingmhs.dodea.edu/school-about-us |access-date=15 May 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515232445/https://ejkingmhs.dodea.edu/school-about-us |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The dining hall at the U.S. Naval Academy, King Hall, is named after him.<ref>{{cite web |author=Bill the Goat |title=Behind the Scenes: Feeding the Masses at King Hall |publisher=U.S. Naval Academy |url=https://go.navyonline.com/blog/king-hall |access-date=15 May 2024 |archive-date=16 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240516104906/https://go.navyonline.com/blog/king-hall |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The auditorium at the [[Naval Postgraduate School]], King Hall, is named after him.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dedication of Buildings |date=31 May 1956 |publisher=Naval Postgraduate School |url=https://nps.edu/documents/103424623/104825821/NPS+1956+Dedication+of+Buildings.pdf/4afb8165-4a55-4b64-a980-83d36c98853f |access-date=15 May 2024 |archive-date=25 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240725220332/https://nps.edu/documents/103424623/104825821/NPS%201956%20Dedication%20of%20Buildings.pdf/4afb8165-4a55-4b64-a980-83d36c98853f |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Recognizing King's great personal and professional interest in maritime history, the Secretary of the Navy named in his honor an academic chair at the [[Naval War College]] to be held with the title of the [[Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History]].{{sfn|Hattendorf|2023|p=xii}}
* One of the two major living quarters at the [[Officer Training Command Newport]], Rhode Island, is named King Hall in his honor.<ref>{{cite news |first=Richard |last=Payerchin |date=30 November 2010 |title=Adm. Ernest J. King honored locally: Flag flown headed to U.S. Navy training base |newspaper=[[Morning Journal]] |location=Lisbon, Ohio |url=https://www.morningjournal.com/2010/11/30/adm-ernest-j-king-honored-locally-flag-flown-headed-to-us-navy-training-base/ |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518205610/https://www.morningjournal.com/2010/11/30/adm-ernest-j-king-honored-locally-flag-flown-headed-to-us-navy-training-base/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* King was portrayed by [[Tyler McVey]] in ''[[The Gallant Hours]]'' (1960),<ref>{{cite web  |title=The Gallant Hours – Full Cast & Crew  |work=TV Guide  |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/the-gallant-hours/cast/2000045478/  |access-date=15 May 2024  |archive-date=15 May 2024  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515232452/https://www.tvguide.com/movies/the-gallant-hours/cast/2000045478/  |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Russell Johnson]] in ''[[MacArthur (1977 film)|MacArthur]]'' (1977),<ref>{{cite web |title=MacArthur – Full Cast & Crew  |publisher= TV Guide |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/macarthur/cast/2030126016/ |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> [[John Dehner]] in ''[[War and Remembrance (miniseries)|War and Remembrance]]'' (1988),<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |title=Deaths – John Dehner |date=10 February 1992 |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1992/02/10/deaths/06371aa6-f1b0-4519-8cad-b6065586c682/ |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref> and [[Mark Rolston]] in ''[[Midway (2019 film)|Midway]]'' (2019).<ref>{{cite web |title=Midway – Full Cast & Crew  |publisher= TV Guide |url=https://www.tvguide.com/movies/midway/cast/2030254281/ |access-date=15 May 2024}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Barlow |first=Jeffrey G. |contribution=Roosevelt and King: The War in the Atlantic and European Theaters |editor-last=Marolda |editor-first=Edward J. |title=FDR and the U.S. Navy |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21157-8 |oclc=38764991}}
* {{cite book |last=Blair |first=Clay Jr. |author-link=Clay Blair |title=Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan |location=Philadelphia; New York |publisher=J.B. Lippincott and Company |year=1975 |isbn=0-397-00753-1 |oclc=5070489 |url=https://archive.org/details/silentvictoryus00blai }}
* {{cite book |last=Borneman |first=Walter R. | author-link=Walter R. Borneman |title=The Admirals: Nimitz, Halsey, Leahy and King – The Five-Star Admirals Who Won the War at Sea |location=New York |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-316-09784-0 |oclc=805654962}}
* {{cite book |last=Buell |first=Thomas B. |title=Master of Sea Power: A Biography of Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1995 |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=1-55750-092-4 |oclc=5799946 |url=https://archive.org/details/masterofseapower0000buel }}
* {{cite book |last=Buell |first=Thomas B. |contribution=Roosevelt and Strategy in the Pacific  |editor-last=Marolda |editor-first=Edward J. |title=FDR and the U.S. Navy |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21157-8 |oclc=38764991}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Burtness |first1=Paul S. |last2=Ober |first2=Warren U. |title=Research Note: Secretary Forrestal and Admiral King on Admiral Stark: Conflicting Assessments |journal=Australian Journal of Politics and History |issn=0004-9522 |volume=59 |issue=4 |year=2013 |pages=669–676 |doi=10.1111/ajph.12038 }}
* {{cite book |last=Cline |first=Ray S. |author-link=Ray S. Cline |title=Washington Command Post: The Operations Division |series=United States Army in World War II |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Center of Military History, Department of the Army |year=1951 |url=http://history.army.mil/html/books/001/1-2/CMH_Pub_1-2.pdf |oclc=1251644 |access-date=25 May 2024 |archive-date=25 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525003932/https://history.army.mil/html/books/001/1-2/CMH_Pub_1-2.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Coles |first=Michael |title=Ernest King and the British Pacific Fleet: The Conference at Quebec, 1944 ('Octagon') |journal=The Journal of Military History[ |issn=0899-3718 |volume=65 |issue=1 |date=January 2001 |pages=105–129 |doi=10.2307/2677432 |jstor=2677432}}
* {{cite book |last=Davidson |first=Joel R. |title=The Unsinkable Fleet: The Politics of U.S. Navy Expansion in World War II |publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1996 |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=1-55750-156-4 |oclc=34472914}}
* {{cite book |last=Gannon |first=Michael | author-link=Michael Gannon (historian) |title=Operation Drumbeat |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1991 |location=New York |isbn=0-06-092088-2 |oclc=24753552 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hattendorf |first=John B. |author-link=John B. Hattendorf |contribution=Introduction |pages=xi–xiii |editor-last=Hattendorf |editor-first=John B. |editor-link=John B. Hattendorf |title=HM 30: Reflections on Naval History: Collected Essays |year=2023 |series=Historical Monographs |number=34 |publisher=U.S. Naval War College |location=Newport, Rhode Island |url=https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/usnwc-historical-monographs/34 |access-date=16 May 2023 |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810004440/https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/usnwc-historical-monographs/34/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Grace Person |year=1982 |title=The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in World War II: The War against Japan |publisher=Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=0-87021-269-9 |oclc=7795125}}
* {{cite book |last=Heinrichs |first=Walso |contribution=FDR and the Admirals: Strategy and Statecraft |editor-last=Marolda |editor-first=Edward J. |title=FDR and the U.S. Navy |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-312-21157-8 |oclc=38764991 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Hone |first1=Thomas C. |last2=Utz |first2=Curtis A. |title=History of the Office of the Chief Of Naval Operations 1915–2015 |publisher=Naval History And Heritage Command, Department of the Navy |location=Washington, D.C. |date=2023 |isbn=978-1-943604-02-9 |oclc=1042076000}}
* {{cite book |last=Ismay |first=Hastings Lionel |author-link=Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay |title=The Memoirs of General the Lord Ismay |date=1960 |location=London |publisher=William Heinemann |oclc=4162506 |url=https://archive.org/details/memoirsofgeneral00isma }}
* {{cite journal |last=King |first=Ernest J. |title=Some Ideas About Organization on Board Ship |date=January 1909 |journal=[[Proceedings (magazine)|United States Naval Institute Proceedings]] |issn=0041-798X |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–36 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1909/january/some-ideas-about-organization-board-ship |access-date=8 May 2024 |archive-date=7 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240507212231/https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1909/january/some-ideas-about-organization-board-ship |url-status=live }}
* {{cite thesis |last=King |first=Ernest J. |title=The Influence of National Policy on Strategy |date=7 November 1932 |publisher=Naval War College |url=https://usnwcarchives.org/repositories/2/digital_objects/58 |access-date=9 May 2024 }}
* {{cite book |last1=King |first1=Ernest J. |last2=Whitehill |first2=Walter Muir | author-link2=Walter Muir Whitehill |title=Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |year=1952 |location=New York |isbn=0-7858-1302-0}}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kohnen |first1=David | author-link2=David Kohnen |title=King's Navy: Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King and the Rise of American Sea Power, 1897-1947 |publisher=Schiffer |year=2024 |location=Atglen, Pennsylvania |isbn=978-0-7643-6837-0}}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kohnen |first=David |year=2018 |title=Charting a New Course: The Knox-Pye-King Board and Naval Professional Education, 1919–23 |journal=[[Naval War College Review]] |issn=0028-1484 |volume=71 |issue=3 |pages=121–141 |url=https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol71/iss3/8 |access-date=9 May 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515235745/https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol71/iss3/8/ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Love |first=Robert William Jr. |contribution=Ernest Joseph King |pages=137–180 |editor-last=Love |editor-first=Robert William Jr. |title=The Chiefs of Naval Operations |year=1980  |publisher=Naval Institute Press |location=Annapolis, Maryland |isbn=0-87021-115-3 |oclc=6142731}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Casey L. |last2=Jappert |first2=Carl |last3=Jackson |first3=Matthew |title=Beating Drumbeat: Lessons Learned in Unified Action from the German U-Boat Offensive Against the United States, January–July 1942 |journal=[[Joint Forces Quarterly]] |issn=1070-0692 |issue=111 |date=October 2023 |pages=131–140 |url=https://dml.armywarcollege.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/jfq-111.pdf |access-date=6 August 2024 |archive-date=13 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240513163436/https://dml.armywarcollege.edu/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/jfq-111.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot |author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |series=  [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]] |volume=I |title=The Battle of the Atlantic, September 1939 – May 1943 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=1947 |location=Boston |oclc=21900908 }}
* {{cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot | author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |series= [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]] |volume=III |title=The Rising Sun in the Pacific, 1931 – April 1942 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=1948 |location=Boston |oclc=696951593 }}
* {{cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot |author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |series=  [[History of United States Naval Operations in World War II]] |volume=XI |title= The Invasion of France and Germany: 1944–1945 |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |year=1957|location=Boston |oclc=778922232 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Gerard T. |year=1985 |title=Sixty Seconds to Live |journal=[[Proceedings (magazine)|Proceedings]] |issn=0041-798X |volume=111 |issue=9 |pages=70–72 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1985/september/sixty-seconds-live |access-date=May 24, 2024 |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510055523/https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1985/september/sixty-seconds-live |url-status=live }}}
* {{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=Williamson |author-link1=Williamson Murray |last2=Millett |first2=Allan Reed |author-link2=Allan R. Millett |title=A War To Be Won: Fighting the Second World War |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-04130-1 |oclc=438125484}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Parker |first=Sally Lister |title=Attendant Lords: A Study of the British Joint Staff Mission in Washington, 1942–1945 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Maryland |date=1984 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/303324334 |access-date=8 June 2024 |id={{ProQuest|303324334}} |via=ProQuest |archive-date=8 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240608020545/https://www.proquest.com/docview/303324334 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Reimers |first=David |title=Blueprints for Destruction |magazine=[[Naval History Magazine]] |date=August 2018 |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=44–47 |url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2018/august/blueprints-destruction |access-date=10 May 2024 |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510055523/https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2018/august/blueprints-destruction |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Steven T. |author-link=Steven T. Ross |title=American War Plans 1941–1945: the Test of Battle |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London |year=1997 |isbn=0-7146-4634-2 |oclc=815970164}}
* {{cite book |last=Stoler |first=Mark A. |title=Allies and Adversaries: The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Grand Alliance, and US Strategy in World War II |publisher=UNC Press Books |location= Chapel Hill, North Carolina |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8078-5507-2 |oclc=315731885 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stoler |first=Mark A. |contribution=FDR and the Origins of the National Security Establishment |pages=63–90 |editor-first1=David B. |editor-last1=Woolner |editor-first2=Warren F. |editor-last2=Kimball |editor-link2=Warren F. Kimball |editor-first3=David |editor-last3=Reynolds |title=FDR's World: War, Peace, and Legacies |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2008 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-230-60938-9 |oclc=213601240 }}
* {{cite thesis |last=Strange |first=Joseph Lot |title=Cross-Channel Attack, 1942: The British Rejection of Operation Sledgehammer and the Cherbourg Alternative |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Maryland |year=1984 |via=ProQuest |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/303317233 |access-date=22 May 2024 |id={{ProQuest|303317233}} |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810004448/https://www.proquest.com/docview/303317233 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Whitehill |first=Walter Muir |author-link=Walter Muir Whitehill  |title=A Postscript to ''Fleet Admiral King: A Naval Record'' |journal=Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society |issn=0076-4981 |year=1957 |volume=70 |pages=203–226 |jstor=25080452}}}
{{refend}}
== Further reading ==

* {{cite journal |last1=Graybar |first1=Lloyd J. |title=Master of Seapower |journal=Naval War College Review |issn=0028-1484 |volume=33 |issue=6 |year=1980 |url=https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss6/12 |access-date=10 January 2025 |ref=none}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Ernest King}}
* {{cite web |access-date=2007-12-30 |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-3.htm |title=Fleet Admiral Ernest Joseph King |date=1 June 1996|publisher=Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229150505/http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq36-3.htm |archive-date=29 December 2007 }} Ernest King's biography on official US Department of the Navy website.

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{{Succession box|title=[[Chief of Naval Operations]]|before=[[Harold R. Stark]]|after=[[Chester W. Nimitz]]|years=1942–1945}}
{{Succession box|title=Commander in Chief [[United States Fleet]]|before=[[Husband Kimmel]]|after=none|years=1941–1945}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:King, Ernest}}
[[Category:1878 births]]
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[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sacred Tripod]]
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[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of George I]]
[[Category:Grand Officers of the Order of the Crown (Belgium)]]

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