Kraków

(Redirected from Cracow)

Kraków[a] (Polish: [ˈkrakuf] ), also spelled as Cracow or Krakow,[8] is the second-largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River in Lesser Poland Voivodeship, the city has a population of 804,237 (2023), with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km (62 mi) radius.[9] Kraków was the official capital of Poland until 1596,[10] and has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life. Cited as one of Europe's most beautiful cities,[11] its Old Town was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1978, one of the world's first sites granted the status.

Kraków
Cracow
Royal Capital City of Kraków
Polish: Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków
Motto(s): 
Cracovia urbs celeberrima
(Kraków, the most famous city)
Kraków is located in Poland
Kraków
Kraków
Location of Kraków in Poland
Coordinates: 50°03′41″N 19°56′14″E / 50.06139°N 19.93722°E / 50.06139; 19.93722
Country Poland
Voivodeship Lesser Poland
City rights5 June 1257[2]
City HallWielopolski Palace
Districts18 districts
Government
 • TypeMayor–council government
 • BodyKraków City Council
 • City mayorAleksander Miszalski [pl] (KO)
Area
 • City
326.8 km2 (126.2 sq mi)
 • Metro
4,065.11 km2 (1,569.55 sq mi)
Highest elevation
383 m (1,257 ft)
Lowest elevation
187 m (614 ft)
Population
 (30 June 2023)
 • City
Neutral increase 804,237 (2nd)[1]
 • Density2,461/km2 (6,370/sq mi)
 • Metro
1,498,499
 • Metro density370/km2 (950/sq mi)
Demonym(s)Cracovian (en)
krakowianin (male)
krakowianka (female) (pl)
GDP
 • City€18.031 billion (2020)
 • Metro€25.534 billion (2020)
Time zoneUTC+1 (CET)
 • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST)
Postal code
30-024 to 31–963
Area code+48 12
International airportKraków John Paul II (KRK)
Websitewww.krakow.pl Edit this at Wikidata
Official nameHistoric Centre of Kraków
TypeCultural
CriteriaIV
Designated1978 (2nd session)
Reference no.29
UNESCO regionEurope

The city began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was a busy trading centre of Central Europe in 985.[12] In 1038, it became the seat of Polish monarchs from the Piast dynasty, and subsequently served as the centre of administration under Jagiellonian kings and of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the late 16th century, when Sigismund III transferred his royal court to Warsaw. With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków reaffirmed its role as the nucleus of a national spirit. After the invasion of Poland, at the start of World War II, the newly defined Distrikt Krakau became the seat of Nazi Germany's General Government. The Jewish population was forced into the Kraków Ghetto, a walled zone from where they were sent to Nazi extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz, and Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów.[13] However, the city was spared from destruction. In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years.[14]

The Old Town and historic centre of Kraków, along with the nearby Wieliczka Salt Mine, are Poland's first World Heritage Sites.[15][16] Its extensive cultural and architectural legacy across the epochs of Gothic, Renaissance, and Baroque architecture includes Wawel Cathedral and Wawel Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula, St. Mary's Basilica, Saints Peter and Paul Church, and the largest medieval market square in Europe, Rynek Główny.[17] Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University, one of the oldest universities in the world and often considered Poland's most reputable academic institution of higher learning. The city also hosts a number of institutions of national significance, including the National Museum, Kraków Opera, Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, National Stary Theatre, and the Jagiellonian Library.

Kraków is classified as a global city with the ranking of "high sufficiency" by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.[18] The city is served by John Paul II International Airport, the country's second busiest airport and the most important international airport for the inhabitants of south-eastern Poland. In 2000, Kraków was named European Capital of Culture. In 2013, Kraków was officially approved as a UNESCO City of Literature.[19] The city hosted World Youth Day in 2016,[20] and the European Games in 2023.[21]

Etymology

edit

The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Vistulans.[22] In Polish, Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)".[23] The true origin of the name is highly disputed among historians, with many theories in existence and no unanimous consensus.[22] The first recorded mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the seventh century, when it was inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans.[12] It is possible that the name of the city is derived from the word kruk, meaning 'crow' or 'raven'.[24]

The city's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków,[25] which can be translated as "Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian (Polish: krakowianin or krakus).[26] Until the 1990s the English version of the name was often written as Cracow, but now the most widespread modern English version is Krakow.[27]

History

edit

Origins and middle ages

edit
 
The Romanesque St. Leonard's Crypt dates back to the 11th century, when Casimir I the Restorer made Kraków his royal residence and the capital of the Kingdom of Poland.

Kraków's early history begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill.[28] A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski. The first written record of the city's name dates back to 965, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia (876–879), but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955.[29] The first acclaimed ruler of Poland, Mieszko I, took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign.[30]

In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government.[12] By the end of the tenth century, the city was a leading centre of trade.[31] Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St. Andrew's Church, a cathedral, and a basilica.[32] The city was sacked and burned during the Mongol invasion of 1241.[33] It was rebuilt practically identically,[34] based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V the Chaste who following the example of Wrocław, introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens.[35] In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols. A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the newly built fortifications.[36] In 1315 a large alliance of Poland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden was formed in Kraków.[37]

 
Woodcut of Kraków from the Nuremberg Chronicle, 1493

In 1335, King Casimir III the Great (Polish: Kazimierz) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him, Kazimierz (Latin: Casimiria). The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362, and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka.[38] The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir founded the University of Kraków,[39] the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague.

The city continued to grow under the Jagiellonian dynasty. As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen from abroad,[40] businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish.[41] The royal chancery and the university ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city.[42]

Early modern period

edit

The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age.[43] Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created,[44][45] including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue.[46] During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city[47] after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473.[48][49]

In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem.[50] At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter.[51] Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches.[52] In 1553, the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal (council of a Jewish self-governing community) a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of the already existing defensive walls. The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia.[53] In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance. Furthermore, in 1596, Sigismund III of the House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw.[54] The city was destabilised by pillaging in the 1650s during the Swedish invasion, especially during the 1655 siege.[55] Later in 1707, the city underwent an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead.[56]

View of Kraków (Cracovia) near the end of the 16th century

19th century

edit
 
Tadeusz Kościuszko taking the oath of loyalty to the Polish nation in Kraków's market square (Rynek), 1794

Already weakened during the 18th century, by the mid-1790s the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire and Prussia.[57] In 1791, the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków. The richer Jewish families began to move out. However, because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath, most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues. In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland. As a result, Kraków fell under Habsburg rule.[58]

In 1802, German became the town's official language. Of the members appointed by the Habsburgs to the municipal council only half were Polish.[59] From 1796 to 1809, the population of the city rose from 22,000 to 26,000 with an increasing percentage of nobles and officials.[59] In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw.[59] During the time of the Duchy of Warsaw, requirements to upkeep the Polish army followed by tours of Austrian, Polish and Russian troops, plus Russian occupation and a flood in the year 1813 all added up to the adverse development of the city with a high debt burden on public finances and many workshops and trading houses needing to close their activities.[59]

 
Act of granting the constitution to the Free City of Cracow. After the Partitions of Poland, Kraków became a city-state and remained the only piece of sovereign Polish territory between 1815 and 1846.

Following Napoleon's defeat, the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre-war boundaries but also created the partially independent and neutral Free City of Kraków.[59] In addition to the historic city of Kraków itself, the Free City included the towns of Chrzanow, Trzebinia and Nowa Gora and 224 villages. Outside the city, mining and metallurgy started developing. The population of Kraków itself grew in this time from 23,000 to 43,000; that of the overall republic from 88,000 to 103,000. The population of the city had an increasing number of Catholic clergy, officials and intelligentsia with which the rich townspeople sympathised. They were opposed to the conservative landed aristocracy who also were drawn more and more to the city real estates even though their income still mainly came from their agricultural possessions in the Republic, the Kingdom of Poland and Galicia. The percentage of the Jewish population in the city also increased in this time from 20.8% to 30.4%. However, nationalist sentiment and other political issues led to instability; this culminated in the Kraków uprising of 1846, which was crushed by the Austrian authorities.[60] The Free City was therefore annexed into the Austrian Empire as the Grand Duchy of Kraków (Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie, German: Großherzogtum Krakau), which was legally separate from but administratively part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria (more simply Austrian Galicia).[61]

During the era of the free city, a free trade zone led to positive economic development. But because of the unstable political situation and insecurity about the future, not much of the accumulated wealth was invested.[59] Through the increase of taxes, customs and regulations, prices soared and the city fell into a recession. From 1844 to 1850 the population was diminished by over 4,000 inhabitants.[59]

In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro-Prussian War.[62] Kraków, being politically freer than the Polish cities under Prussian (later German) and Russian rule, became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny). Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków,[63] among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko,[64] laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański.[65] Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków).[66][67]

At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company—the predecessor of the Polish Legions—which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland.[68] The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914.[69] Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power.[70][71]

20th century to the present

edit
 
Flower vendors in Rynek—the first autochrome in Poland, dated 1912

Following the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918, Kraków resumed its role as a major Polish academic and cultural centre, with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, as well as several new and essential vocational schools. The city became an important cultural centre for Polish Jews, including both Zionist and Bundist groups.[72][73][74] Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance—from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform Judaism—flourishing side by side.[75]

Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939, the city of Kraków became part of the General Government, a separate administrative region of the Third Reich. On 26 October 1939, the Nazi régime set up Distrikt Krakau, one of four districts within the General Government. On the same day, the city of Kraków became the capital of the administration.[76] The General Government was ruled by Governor-General Hans Frank, who was based in the city's Wawel Castle. The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely Germanised city; after removal of all Jews and Poles, renaming of locations and streets into the German language, and sponsorship of propaganda portraying the city as historically German.[77] On 28 November 1939, Frank set up Judenräte ('Jewish Councils') to be run by Jewish citizens for the purpose of carrying out orders for the Nazis. These orders included the registration of all Jewish people living in each area, the collection of taxes, and the formation of forced-labour groups. The Polish Home Army maintained a parallel underground administrative system.[78]

At the outbreak of World War II, some 56,000 Jews resided in Kraków—almost one-quarter of a total population of about 250,000; by November 1939, the Jewish population of the city had grown to approximately 70,000.[79][80] According to German statistics from 1940, over 200,000 Jews lived within the entire Kraków District, comprising more than 5 percent of the district's total population. However, these statistics probably underestimate the situation.[80] In November 1939, during an operation known as Sonderaktion Krakau ('special operation Kraków'), the Germans arrested more than 180 university professors and academics, and sent them to the Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians.[81][82]

 
Kraków Ghetto, 1942—a German checkpoint during Aktion Krakau

Before the formation of ghettos, which began in the Kraków District in December 1939, Jews were encouraged to flee the city. For those who remained, the German authorities decided in March 1941 to allocate a then-suburban neighborhood, Podgórze District, to become Kraków's ghetto, where many Jews subsequently died of illness or starvation. Initially, most ghettos were open and Jews were allowed to enter and exit freely, but as security became tighter the ghettos were generally closed. From autumn 1941, the SS developed the policy of extermination through labour,[83] which further worsened the already bleak conditions for Jews. The inhabitants of the Kraków Ghetto were later murdered or sent to German extermination camps, including Bełżec and Auschwitz, and to Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp.[84] The largest deportations within the Distrikt occurred from June to September 1942. More specifically, mass deportation from Kraków's ghetto occurred in the first week of June 1942,[80] and the ghetto was finally liquidated in March 1943.[85]

The film director Roman Polanski survived the Kraków Ghetto. Oskar Schindler selected employees from the ghetto to work in his enamelware factory Deutsche Emailwarenfabrik, saving them from the camps.[86][87] Similarly, many men capable of physical labor were saved from deportation to extermination camps and instead sent to labor camps across the General Government.[80] By September 1943, the last of the Jews from the Kraków Ghetto had been deported. Although looted by occupational authorities, Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II,[88] with most of the city's historical and architectural legacy spared. Soviet forces under the command of Marshal Ivan Konev entered the city on 18 January 1945, and began arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government-in-exile or those who had served in the Home Army.[89]

 
Kraków's territorial growth from the late 18th to the 20th century

After the war, under the Polish People's Republic (officially declared in 1952), the intellectual and academic community of Kraków came under complete political control. The universities were soon deprived of their printing rights and autonomy.[90] The Stalinist government of Poland ordered the construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta.[91] The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city into an industrial centre.[92]

In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, the cardinal archbishop of Kraków from 1964 to 1978, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the newly industrialized suburbs.[92][93] In 1978, the Catholic Church elevated Wojtyła to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in over 450 years. In the same year, UNESCO, following the application of local authorities, placed Kraków Old Town on the first list of World Heritage Sites.[94]

Geography

edit
 
Tyniec Abbey with the Bielany Camaldolese Hermit Monastery in the distance

Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, approximately 219 m (719 ft) above sea level.[95] The city is located on the border between different physiographic regions: the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland in the north-western parts of the city, the Małopolska Upland in the north-east, the Sandomierz Basin (east) and the Western Beskidian Foothills of the Carpathians (south).[96]

There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres).[97] Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected.[97] The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge.[97] The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape.[98] Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network.[99]

Climate

edit
 
Convent of Norbertine Sisters in Kraków-Zwierzyniec and the Vistula River during the summer season

Kraków has a humid continental climate, denoted by Köppen classification as Dfb, somewhat boardering on an oceanic climate (Cfb); with climate change winters are rapidly becoming milder, and hot summers days above 30C are increasingly common,[100] but with winter temperatures on average still below freezing, it is perhaps best defined as having a semicontinental climate.[101][102] In older reference periods it was classified as a warm summer continental climate (Dfb).[103][104] By classification of Wincenty Okołowicz, it has a warm temperate climate in the centre of continental Europe with the "fusion" of different features.[105]

Due to its geographic location, the city may be under marine influence, sometimes Arctic influence, but without direct influence, giving the city variable meteorological conditions over short spaces of time.[106][107] The city lies in proximity to the Tatra Mountains and there are often occurrences of a foehn wind called halny, causing temperatures to rise rapidly.[108] In relation to Warsaw, temperatures are very similar for most of the year, except that in the colder months southern Poland has a larger daily temperature range, more moderate winds, generally more rainy days and with greater chances of clear skies on average, especially in winter. The higher sun angle also allows for a longer growing season.[109] In addition, for older data there was less sun than the capital of the country, about 30 minutes daily per year, but both have small differences in relative humidity and the direction of the winds is northeast.[101]

The climate table below presents weather data with averages from 1991 to 2020, sunshine ranges from 1971 to 2000, and valid extremes from 1951 to the present day:

Climate data for Kraków-Airport (KRK), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 16.6
(61.9)
19.8
(67.6)
24.1
(75.4)
30.0
(86.0)
32.6
(90.7)
34.2
(93.6)
35.7
(96.3)
37.3
(99.1)
34.8
(94.6)
27.1
(80.8)
22.5
(72.5)
19.3
(66.7)
37.3
(99.1)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 10.0
(50.0)
12.3
(54.1)
18.0
(64.4)
24.3
(75.7)
27.9
(82.2)
31.1
(88.0)
32.5
(90.5)
32.2
(90.0)
27.6
(81.7)
23.4
(74.1)
17.3
(63.1)
10.9
(51.6)
33.8
(92.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 1.6
(34.9)
3.7
(38.7)
8.4
(47.1)
15.1
(59.2)
19.8
(67.6)
23.2
(73.8)
25.3
(77.5)
25.0
(77.0)
19.5
(67.1)
14.0
(57.2)
7.6
(45.7)
2.7
(36.9)
13.8
(56.8)
Daily mean °C (°F) −1.6
(29.1)
−0.2
(31.6)
3.5
(38.3)
9.3
(48.7)
14.0
(57.2)
17.6
(63.7)
19.3
(66.7)
18.9
(66.0)
13.9
(57.0)
8.8
(47.8)
3.8
(38.8)
−0.5
(31.1)
8.9
(48.0)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −4.7
(23.5)
−3.7
(25.3)
−0.8
(30.6)
3.7
(38.7)
8.5
(47.3)
12.2
(54.0)
13.8
(56.8)
13.4
(56.1)
9.2
(48.6)
4.7
(40.5)
0.6
(33.1)
−3.4
(25.9)
4.5
(40.1)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −15.7
(3.7)
−13.0
(8.6)
−8.0
(17.6)
−3.0
(26.6)
1.9
(35.4)
6.6
(43.9)
8.3
(46.9)
7.7
(45.9)
2.8
(37.0)
−3.2
(26.2)
−7.3
(18.9)
−13.5
(7.7)
−18.0
(−0.4)
Record low °C (°F) −29.9
(−21.8)
−29.5
(−21.1)
−26.7
(−16.1)
−7.5
(18.5)
−3.2
(26.2)
−0.1
(31.8)
5.4
(41.7)
2.7
(36.9)
−3.1
(26.4)
−7.4
(18.7)
−17.2
(1.0)
−29.5
(−21.1)
−29.9
(−21.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 37.9
(1.49)
32.3
(1.27)
38.1
(1.50)
46.4
(1.83)
79.0
(3.11)
77.0
(3.03)
98.2
(3.87)
72.5
(2.85)
65.8
(2.59)
51.2
(2.02)
41.4
(1.63)
33.4
(1.31)
673.0
(26.50)
Average extreme snow depth cm (inches) 7.6
(3.0)
6.5
(2.6)
2.7
(1.1)
0.9
(0.4)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.0
(0.0)
0.3
(0.1)
2.7
(1.1)
4.1
(1.6)
7.6
(3.0)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 16.93 15.71 15.00 12.87 14.97 13.37 15.00 12.00 12.07 13.40 14.67 15.77 171.74
Average snowy days (≥ 0 cm) 17.9 14.1 5.5 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 4.3 11.9 54.8
Average relative humidity (%) 85.8 82.5 76.3 69.9 72.0 72.7 73.2 74.5 80.2 83.8 87.7 87.5 78.8
Mean monthly sunshine hours 43.3 63.2 100.5 136.9 200.8 193.5 210.5 200.7 125.4 97.7 48.8 32.1 1,453.4
Source 1: Institute of Meteorology and Water Management[110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117]
Source 2: Meteomodel.pl (records, relative humidity 1991–2020, sunshine 1971–2000)[118][119][120][121]
Climate data for Kraków-Observatory, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 17.3
(63.1)
21.0
(69.8)
24.7
(76.5)
31.2
(88.2)
33.7
(92.7)
36.0
(96.8)
36.7
(98.1)
38.3
(100.9)
35.8
(96.4)
27.9
(82.2)
24.0
(75.2)
19.9
(67.8)
38.3
(100.9)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 10.9
(51.6)
13.3
(55.9)
18.9
(66.0)
25.3
(77.5)
28.9
(84.0)
32.1
(89.8)
33.4
(92.1)
33.2
(91.8)
28.4
(83.1)
24.4
(75.9)
17.8
(64.0)
11.6
(52.9)
34.7
(94.5)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 2.3
(36.1)
4.4
(39.9)
9.1
(48.4)
15.8
(60.4)
20.6
(69.1)
24.0
(75.2)
26.0
(78.8)
25.8
(78.4)
20.2
(68.4)
14.6
(58.3)
8.2
(46.8)
3.3
(37.9)
14.5
(58.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) −1.0
(30.2)
0.4
(32.7)
4.1
(39.4)
9.8
(49.6)
14.6
(58.3)
18.3
(64.9)
20.0
(68.0)
19.3
(66.7)
14.2
(57.6)
9.2
(48.6)
4.4
(39.9)
0.2
(32.4)
9.5
(49.1)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −3.5
(25.7)
−2.6
(27.3)
0.3
(32.5)
4.8
(40.6)
9.5
(49.1)
13.2
(55.8)
14.9
(58.8)
14.4
(57.9)
10.1
(50.2)
5.7
(42.3)
1.7
(35.1)
−2.2
(28.0)
5.5
(41.9)
Mean minimum °C (°F) −14.0
(6.8)
−11.4
(11.5)
−6.4
(20.5)
−1.6
(29.1)
3.0
(37.4)
8.1
(46.6)
9.9
(49.8)
9.2
(48.6)
3.8
(38.8)
−1.8
(28.8)
−5.8
(21.6)
−11.6
(11.1)
−16.4
(2.5)
Record low °C (°F) −26.1
(−15.0)
−26.8
(−16.2)
−23.2
(−9.8)
−4.6
(23.7)
−1.8
(28.8)
2.3
(36.1)
6.6
(43.9)
4.5
(40.1)
−2.6
(27.3)
−5.7
(21.7)
−16.1
(3.0)
−25.7
(−14.3)
−26.8
(−16.2)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 37.9
(1.49)
33.3
(1.31)
38.3
(1.51)
48.4
(1.91)
82.6
(3.25)
81.1
(3.19)
98.6
(3.88)
75.1
(2.96)
70.3
(2.77)
53.1
(2.09)
41.8
(1.65)
32.4
(1.28)
693.0
(27.28)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 16.9 15.2 14.9 12.9 14.6 13.8 14.7 12.4 12.0 13.6 14.7 16.3 172.0
Average relative humidity (%) 82.2 78.9 73.0 66.1 68.4 68.9 70.0 72.4 79.3 82.7 84.8 83.9 75.9
Source: https://meteomodel.pl/dane/srednie-miesieczne[122]

Cityscape

edit
 
The Renaissance Cloth Hall (Sukiennice) in Main Market Square
 
Wawel Royal Castle
 
The Kraków Barbican, dating from around 1498, was once a fortified outpost of the inner medieval city.

Kraków provides a showcase setting for many historic forms of architecture developed over the ten centuries, especially Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque styles.[123] Renowned artisans and skilled craftsmen from present-day Italy and Germany were brought and sponsored by kings or nobles who contributed to architectural wealth and diversity.[123] The Brick Gothic manner as well as countless structural elements such as the Renaissance attics with decorative pinnacles became recognisable features of historical buildings in Kraków.[23] Built from its earliest nucleus outward, the city's monuments can be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out, towards its newer districts.[123]

Kraków's historic centre, which includes the Old Town (Stare Miasto), the Main Market Square (Rynek Główny), the Cloth Hall (Sukiennice), the Barbican (Barbakan), St. Florian's Gate, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle, was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978.[15] The central core surrounded by Planty Park remains the most prominent example of an old town in the country, with the medieval street layout still in existence.[124] Kraków was the royal capital of Poland for many centuries, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596.[125] The district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. Several important monuments were lost in the course of history, notably the Ratusz town hall.[126] However, the Gothic Town Hall Tower measuring 70 m (229 ft 8 in) in height remains standing.[22]

In addition to the old town, the city's district of Kazimierz is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets, as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north-eastern part of Kazimierz. Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south-east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy, well-populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace. Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the only major, permanent bridge (Pons Regalis) across the northern arm of the Vistula. This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries, while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route. The last structure at this location (at the end of modern Stradom Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of the river was filled in with earth and rock, and subsequently built over.[38][127]

By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city. Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze.[128] This, in turn, led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków. Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form. Some old buildings, however, were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War, and have remained empty. Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993. Kazimierz is now a well-visited area, seeing a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops.[129]

 
Skałka ("Small Rock") Church, and the adjacent monastery of Pauline Fathers, is a place of burial for distinguished Poles and Cracovians.

As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the new architectural styles also developed. Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city's Academy of Economics. It was also at around that time that Kraków's first radial boulevards began to appear, with the city undergoing a large-scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into a sophisticated regional centre of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. New representative government buildings and multi-story tenement houses were built at around that time. Much of the urban-planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna. Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University's new premises and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town. The imperial style planning of the city's further development continued until the return of Poland's independence, following the First World War. Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the 'House under the Globe'. Secession style architecture, which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna, became popular towards the end of the Partitions.[130]

 
Palace of Art at Szczepański Square is an example of Art Nouveau architecture in central Kraków.[131]

With Poland's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków—now the second most important city of a sovereign nation. The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings. The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art-deco style.[132] Important buildings constructed in the style of Polish modernism include the Feniks 'LOT' building on Basztowa Street, the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square. The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city.[133]

After the Second World War, new Communist government adopted Stalinist monumentalism. The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland, as in other countries of the Eastern Bloc, was enforced from 1949 to 1956. It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design. The guidelines for this new trend were spelled-out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects. Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists.[134] The ideological impact of urban design was valued more than aesthetics. It aimed at expressing persistence and power. This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint, with repetitious courtyards and wide, tree-lined avenues.[135]

 
Plac Centralny, the main square of the socialist-realist district Nowa Huta

Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it was also used for augmenting Poland's Socialist national format. However, in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism, there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists. From 1953, critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent, and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism.[136] The soc-realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be a meritorious monument of the times. This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. Some examples of the new style (e.g., Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków.[137]

After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century,[138] a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska, or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram. A good example of this would be the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology designed by Arata Isozaki, the 2007-built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000,[139] which is used as a multi-purpose information and exhibition space, or the Małopolski Garden of Arts (Małopolski Ogród Sztuki), a multi-purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town.[140]

Parks and gardens

edit
 
Planty Park surrounds Kraków's Old Town.
 
A pavilion within the Planty Park during winter

There are about 40 parks in Kraków, including dozens of gardens and forests.[141] Several, like the Planty Park, Botanical Garden, Zoological Garden, Royal Garden, Park Krakowski, Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in the centre of the city; with others, such as Zakrzówek, Wanda Green Ravine Park, Wolski forest, Strzelecki Park and Lotników Park in the surrounding districts.[141] Parks cover about 318.5 hectares (787 acres; 1.23 sq mi) of the city.[97]

The best-known park in Kraków is the Planty Park. Established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, it forms a green belt around the Old Town and consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and a length of 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians.[142]

Jordan Park, founded in 1889 by Henryk Jordan, was the first public park of its kind in Europe.[143] Built on the banks of the Rudawa, the park was equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, a swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles. It is located in the grounds of one of the city's larger parks, Błonia Park.[144] The less prominent Park Krakowski, founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman, was a popular destination point for Cracovians at the end of the 19th century, but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development.[145]

Environment

edit

There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48.6 hectares (120 acres).[146] Smaller green zones constitute parts of the Kraków-Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks' Board, which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura. Under its jurisdiction are: the Bielany-Tyniec Landscape Park (Park Bielańsko-Tyniecki), Tenczynek Landscape Park (Park Tencziński) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park (Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie), with their watersheds.[97] The natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of the CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora, fauna, geomorphology and landscape.[147] The western part of Kraków constitutes the so-called Obszar Krakowski ecological network, including the ecological corridor of the Vistula. The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation, grasslands and shrubs.[147][148]

The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of the Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga, and left: Rudawa, Białucha, Dłubnia and Sanka.[149] The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków.[149]

Kraków and its environment, surrounded by mountains, suffer from Europe's dirtiest air pollution because of smog, caused by burning coal for heating, especially in winter.[150]

Governance

edit
 
The New Town Hall of Podgórze, which used to be a self-governing independent town until its incorporation into Kraków in 1915

The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members,[151] one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government,[152] which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The President of Kraków, re-elected for his fourth term in 2014, is Jacek Majchrowski.[153] Several members of the Polish national Parliament (Sejm) are elected from the Kraków constituency.[154] The city's official symbols include a coat of arms, a flag, a seal, and a banner.[155]

 
The entrance to the Wielopolski Palace from 1560, the seat of Kraków's mayor, administration and city council

Responsibilities of Kraków's president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters.[152] The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large.[156]

In 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences dropped by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period.[157] The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press.

Districts

edit

Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government.[158] Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków: the towns of Podgórze, Nowa Huta and Krowodrza, which were amalgamated into the city as it expanded; and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself.[158]

 
Kanonicza Street in the Old Town (Stare Miasto) district

The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century. These include the Old Town (Stare Miasto), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz with its historic Jewish quarter, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters;[159] and the ancient town of Kleparz.

Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze—until 1915, a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula—and Nowa Huta, to the east of the city centre, which was built after World War II.

Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many historic Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its 200-metre-square (660 ft) Main Market Square; dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical centre of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life.[160]

 
Rynek Podgórski - main square of Podgórze district with St. Joseph's Church

The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art.[161] Its rich variety of heritage architecture includes Romanesque (e.g. St. Andrew's Church), Renaissance (e.g. Kraków Cloth Hall), Baroque (e.g. Saints Peter and Paul Church) and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display a great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.[162]

In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary's Basilica (Kościół Mariacki). Rebuilt in the 14th century, it features the famous wooden altar (Altarpiece of Veit Stoss), the largest Gothic altarpiece in the world,[163] carved by Veit Stoss. A trumpet call (hejnał mariacki) is sounded every hour from the church's main tower. The melody, which used to announce the opening and closing of city gates, ends unexpectedly in midstream. According to legend, the tune was played during the 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack. Whilst playing, he was shot by an archer of the invading Tatar forces and the bugle call broke off at the moment he died.[164] The story is recounted in Eric P. Kelly's 1928 book The Trumpeter of Krakow, which won a Newbery Award.[165]

District Population Area (2009)[166]
Stare Miasto (I) 41,121 559.29 ha (5.5929 km2)
Grzegórzki (II) 30,441 586.18 ha (5.8618 km2)
Prądnik Czerwony (III) 46,621 638.82 ha (6.3882 km2)
Prądnik Biały (IV) 66,649 2,370.55 ha (23.7055 km2)
Krowodrza (V) 34,467 538.32 ha (5.3832 km2)
Bronowice (VI) 22,467 957.98 ha (9.5798 km2)
Zwierzyniec (VII) 20,243 2,866.9 ha (28.669 km2)
Dębniki (VIII) 56,258 4,671.11 ha (46.7111 km2)
Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX) 15,014 573.9 ha (5.739 km2)
Swoszowice (X) 20,641 2,416.73 ha (24.1673 km2)
Podgórze Duchackie (XI) 52,522 1,065.24 ha (10.6524 km2)
Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII) 63,270 1,846.93 ha (18.4693 km2)
Podgórze (XIII) 32,050 2,516.07 ha (25.1607 km2)
Czyżyny (XIV) 26,169 1,229.44 ha (12.2944 km2)
Mistrzejowice (XV) 54,276 547.82 ha (5.4782 km2)
Bieńczyce (XVI) 44,237 369.43 ha (3.6943 km2)
Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII) 20,234 2,375.82 ha (23.7582 km2)
Nowa Huta (XVIII) 58,320 6,552.52 ha (65.5252 km2)
Total 760,700 32,680.00 ha (326.8000 km2)

The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995. The districts were each assigned a Roman numeral as well as a name:[167] Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Krowodrza (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII).

Map of districts of the City of Kraków

 

Interactive map. For more information, click on district number.

Economy

edit
 
The Centre for Business Innovation office complex in Kraków

Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centres and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region.[168][169] Since the fall of communism, the private sector has been growing steadily. There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city, including Google, Uber, IBM, Shell, UBS, HSBC, Motorola, Aptiv, MAN, General Electric, ABB, Aon, Akamai, Cisco, Hitachi, Altria, Capgemini,[170] and Sabre Holdings,[171] along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms.[168][172] The city is also the global headquarters for Comarch, an enterprise software house. Kraków is the second most-visited city in Poland (after Warsaw).[168][169] According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Kraków is also the most emergent city location for investment in global BPO projects (Business Process Outsourcing) in the world.[173]

 
Unity Tower is one of the tallest buildings in the city.

In 2011, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on 15 November annually, has a projected revenue of 3,500,000,000 złoty.[174] The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies. Projected expenditures, totaling 3,520,000,000 złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs. Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare. The City of Kraków's development costs included; 41% toward construction of roads, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment.[175] The city has a high bond credit rating, and some 60% of the population is under the age of 45.[169]

Unity Tower was completed in 2020 after almost 30 years, creating a new business and residential centre. It is the second-tallest building in the city after K1.[176]

Knowledge and innovation community

edit

Kraków is one of the co-location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community (Sustainable Energy) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT).[177]

InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organisations from the education, research and industry sectors. It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence. The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy.[178]

Transport

edit
 
Bombardier city tram on Piłsudski Bridge

Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of tram and bus routes operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators. There is no rapid transit system in Kraków, but metro line is planned. First works are expected to commence in 2028.[179][180] Local trains connect some of the suburbs. The bulk of the city's historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse-drawn carriages; however, the trams run within a three-block radius.[181] The historic means of transportation in the city can be examined at the Museum of Municipal Engineering in the Kazimierz district, with many old trams, cars and buses.[182]

 
PKP Intercity train at the Main Railway Station

Railway connections are available to most Polish cities, e.g. Katowice, Częstochowa, Szczecin, Gdynia and Warsaw. International destinations include Bratislava, Budapest, Vienna, Prague, Berlin, Hamburg, Lviv, Kyiv, and Odesa (June–September).[183] The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport.[184]

Kraków's airport, officially named Kraków John Paul II International Airport (IATA: KRK), is located 11 km (7 mi) west of the city. Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 20 minutes. Kraków Airport served around 5,800,000 passengers in 2017.[185] Also, the Katowice International Airport is located 80 kilometres (50 miles) or about 75 minutes from Kraków.[186]

In Autumn 2016 Poland's oldest Bicycle-sharing system was modernized and now offers 1,500 bikes at 169 stations under the name of Wavelo (pl), which is owned by BikeU of the French multinational company Egis.[187]

Demographics

edit
 
Kraków population pyramid in 2021

Kraków had a recorded population of 774,839 in 2019, which increased to 804,237 in 2023.[1] Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently. The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which (in 2010) 1,393,893 inhabitants live.[188]

Already in the Middle Ages, the population of Kraków consisting of numerous ethnic groups, began to grow rapidly.[189] It doubled between 1100 and 1300 from 5,000 to 10,000, and in 1400 counted 14,000 inhabitants. By 1550, the population of metropolitan Kraków was 18,000; although it decreased to 15,000 in the next fifty years due to calamity.[190][191] By the early 17th century the Kraków population had reached 28,000 inhabitants.[192]

In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II, 78.1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20.9%, Ukrainian 0.4%, German 0.3%, and Russian 0.1%.[193] The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków.

In the last two decades, Kraków has seen a large growth of immigrant population. In the 2002 census, only 0.25% of respondents living in the city declared a non-Polish nationality primarily Ukrainian and Russian.[194] As of 2019, it was estimated that foreigners accounted for as much as 10% of the city's population, with Ukrainians being the most numerous group (between 11,000 and 50,000).[195]

Foreign residents (2023)[196]
Nationality Population
  Ukraine 45,100
  Belarus 5,975
  Georgia 3,640
  India 2,636
  Russia 2,221
  Italy 1,512
Population growth in Kraków since 1791

Religion

edit

Religion in Krakow (2021)[197]

  Catholicism (58%)
  Protestantism (0.5%)
  Other Christian (0.2%)
  Other (0.01%)
  Irreligion (14%)
  Undeclared (27%)

The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches. The abundance of historic landmark temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the "Northern Rome" in the past. The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship (2007) of which over 65 were built in the 20th century. More are still being added.[198] In addition to Roman Catholicism, other denominations present include Jehovah's Witnesses,[199] Mariavite Church, Polish Catholic Church, Polish Orthodox Church, Protestantism and Latter-Day Saints.[200] As of 2017, weekly Mass attendance in the Archdiocese of Kraków was 49.9 percent, above the national Polish average of 38.3 percent.[201]

Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland. Kraków was an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Hasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. There were at least 90 synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland, serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60,000–80,000 (out of the city's total population of 237,000), established since the early 12th century.[202]

Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects, and used them as storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment, as general storage facilities and stables. The post-Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5,900 before the end of the 1940s. Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah (emigration to Israel) without visas or exit permits upon the conclusion of World War II.[203] In recent time, thanks to efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organisations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, many synagogues underwent major restorations and serve religious and tourist purposes.[204]

Education

edit
 
Kraków University of Economics

Kraków is a major centre of education. Twenty-four institutions of higher education offer courses in the city, with more than 200,000 students.[205] Jagiellonian University, the oldest university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second-best university in the country,[206][207] was founded in 1364 as Studium Generale[208] and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the royal Jagiellonian dynasty of Poland and Lithuania.[209] Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts[210] like Copernicus' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex. With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland. Famous historical figures connected with the university include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska.[211]

AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000.[212] It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country in 2004.[213] During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees. Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Doctor habilitatus.[214]

 
Collegium Maius, Jagiellonian University's oldest building

Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888, one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue;[215] Kraków University of Economics, established in 1925;[216] Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946;[217] Agricultural University of Kraków, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University);[218] Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts;[219] The Pontifical Academy of Theology;[220] AGH University of Science and Technology and Kraków University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates.

Scientific societies and their branches in Kraków conduct scientific and educational work in local and countrywide scale. The Academy of Learning, Association of Law Students' Library of the Jagiellonian University, Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists and the Polish Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers all have their main seats in Kraków.

Culture

edit
 
Leonardo da Vinci's Lady with an Ermine, at the Czartoryski Museum

Kraków was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union.[221] Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Sigismund Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St. Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route.[222] Among them is the Czartoryski Museum featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt as well as the Archaeological Museum of Kraków whose collection highlights include the Zbruch Idol and the Bronocice Pot.[citation needed]

Museums and national art galleries

edit
 
The National Museum in Kraków is one of Poland's finest galleries of art.

As of 2023, Kraków hosts approximately 82 museums and various museum branches; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries.[223] The National Museum, established in 1879, as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill, are all accessible to the general public.[223]

The Royal Chambers at Wawel feature art, period furniture, Polish and European paintings, collectibles, and a major collection of 16th-century monumental Flemish tapestries.[223] Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia, jewels, applied art, and 15th- to 18th-century arms.[223] The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories.[223] The National Museum holds the largest body of artworks in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept mostly in the Main Building at 3 Maja Street, although there are eleven other separate divisions of the museum in the city, one of the most popular being the Gallery of 19th Century Polish Art at Sukiennice which houses a collection of some of the best-known paintings and sculptures of the Young Poland movement.[223] Inaugurated in 2013, the latest division of the National Museum is the Europeum, with works by Brueghel among a hundred Western European paintings.[224]

 
Kraków Congress Centre, the city's business and cultural flagship

Other notable museums in Kraków include the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology (at M. Konopnickiej 26),[225] Stanisław Wyspiański Museum (at 11 Szczepanska St),[225] Jan Matejko Manor House in Krzesławice,[64] the Emeryk Hutten-Czapski Museum, devoted to the master painter and his life,[226] and Józef Mehoffer Manor.[225]

The Rynek Underground museum, situated under the city's main square, showcases Kraków's more than 1,000-year history through its streets, activities and artifacts. The construction of the museum was preceded by extensive excavations starting in 2005,[227] and continuing eventually until 2010, as more and more physical evidence was uncovered.

Krakil, the Museum of illusions, is a space where illusions are combined with scientific inventions and the arts. Physics and optics are displayed together with artworks and classical riddles.[228]

The Polish Aviation Museum, considered one of the world's best aviation museums by CNN,[229] features over 200 aircraft including a Sopwith Camel among other First World War biplanes, a comprehensive display of aero engines, and a complete collection of airplane types developed by Poland after 1945.[230] Activities of smaller museums around Kraków and in the Lesser Poland region are promoted and supported by the Małopolska Institute of Culture, which organises annual Małopolska Heritage Days.[231]

Performing arts

edit
 
Kraków's Juliusz Słowacki Theatre

The city has several famous theatres, including the Narodowy Stary Teatr (the National Old Theatre),[232] the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, the Bagatela Theatre, the Ludowy Theatre, and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta. The city's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic (Filharmonia Krakowska) built in 1931.[233]

Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events,[234] some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia (Baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), the Kraków Screen Festival (popular music), the Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), the Kraków Film Festival (one of Europe's oldest short films events),[235] Etiuda&Anima International Film Festival (the oldest international art-film event in Poland), Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival. Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature, Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andrić, lived and studied in Kraków. Other former longtime residents include internationally renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski, both of whom are Academy Award winners.[236]

Music

edit
 
Concert hall of the Kraków Philharmonic

Opera Krakowska[237] one of the leading national opera companies, stages 200 performances each year including ballet, operettas and musicals. It has, in its main repertoire, the greatest world and Polish opera classics. The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008. It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta.

Kraków is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas: Opera Rara,[238] and Misteria Paschalia.[239] Meanwhile, Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Krakow International Festival.[240]

Academy of Music in Kraków, founded in 1888, is known worldwide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni. The academy organises concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year.[241]

Music organisations and venues include: Kraków Philharmonic,[242] Sinfonietta Cracovia (a.k.a. the Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków), the Polish Radio Choir of Kraków, Organum Academic Choir, the Mixed Mariański Choir (Mieszany Chór Mariański), Kraków Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University, the Kraków Chamber Choir, Amar Corde String Quartet, Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University, Brass Band of T. Sendzimir Steelworks, and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków.

Tourism

edit

According to official statistics, in 2019 Kraków was visited by over 14 million tourists including 3.3 million foreign travellers.[243] The visitors spent over 7.5 billion zloty (ca. €1.7 billion) in the city (without travel costs and pre-booked accommodation). Most foreign tourists came from Germany (14.2%), United Kingdom (13.9%), Italy (11.5%), France (11.2%), Spain (10.4%) and Ukraine (5.4%).[243] The Kraków tour-guide from the Lesser Poland Visitors Bureau indicated that not all statistics are recorded due to the considerable number of those who come, staying in readily available private rooms paid for by cash, especially from Eastern Europe.[244]

The main reasons for visiting the city are: its historical monuments, recreation as well as relatives and friends (placing third in the ranking), religion and business. There are 120 quality hotels in Kraków (usually about half full) offering 15,485 overnight accommodations.[245] The average stay lasts for about 4 to 7 nights. The survey conducted among the travelers showed that they enjoyed the city's friendliness most, with 90% of Polish tourists and 87% foreigners stating that they would recommend visiting it.[244] Notable points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka Salt Mine, the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa (north-west), the well-preserved former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park,[246] which includes the Renaissance Castle at Pieskowa Skała.[247] Kraków has been awarded a number of top international rankings such as the 1st place in the Top city-break destinations 2014 survey conducted by the British consumer association Which?.[248]

Sports

edit

Football is the most popular sport in the city.[249] The two football teams with the largest following are thirteen-time Polish champion Wisła Kraków,[250] and five-time champion Cracovia,[251] both founded in 1906 as the oldest still existing in Poland.[252] They have been involved in the most intense rivalry in the country and one of the most intense in all of Europe, known as the Holy War (Święta Wojna).[253] Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków, Wieczysta Kraków and one-time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków. There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków. Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including twelve-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków.[citation needed] The Cracovia Marathon, with thousands of participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002.[254]

 
Tauron Arena Kraków

The construction of a new Tauron Arena Kraków began in May 2010; for concerts, indoor athletics, hockey, basketball, futsal and other events. The facility has an area of 61,434 m2, with a maximum arena court area of 4,546 m2. The average capacity is 18,000 for concerts, and 15,000 for sport events, with the maximum number of spectators being 22,000.[255] The Arena boasts Poland's largest LED media façade, with a total surface of 5,200 m2 of LED strip lighting, wrapping around the stadium, and one of Europe's largest LED screens, measuring over 540 m2.[256]

Kraków was the host city of the 2014 FIVB Men's Volleyball World Championship and 2016 European Men's Handball Championship. It was also selected as the European City of Sport for 2014.[257] Kraków was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics with Jasná but the bid was rejected by a majority (69.72%) of the vote in a referendum on 16 May 2014.[258] Krakow and the Malopolska region hosted the 2023 European Games from 21 June to 2 July 2023. More than 7,000 athletes representing 49 countries participated.[259]

Notable people

edit

International relations

edit

Consulates

edit
From top, left to right: consulates general of the United States, Hungary, Austria and France

There are eight consulates general in Kraków – Austria, France, Germany, Hungary, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, United States, three honorary consulates general – India, Japan, Turkey, 24 honorary consulates – Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Indonesia, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Mongolia, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Uruguay, and a Representative of the Government of Kurdistan Region.[260]

Contemporary foreign names for the city

edit

Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages. An old English name for the city is Cracow; though it has become less common in recent decades, some sources still use it. The city is known in Czech, Slovak and Serbian as Krakov, in Hungarian as Krakkó, in Lithuanian as Krokuva, in Finnish as Krakova, in German and Dutch as Krakau, in Latin, Spanish and Italian as Cracovia, in French as Cracovie, in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков. Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv (Краків) and Kroke (קראָקע) respectively.[261]

Twin towns and sister cities

edit

Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations, with 36 cities around the world:[262][263][264]

Notes

edit

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ a b [1] Archived 2023-02-01 at the Wayback Machine (in Polish)
  2. ^ Sikora, Jakub (4 June 2018). "5 czerwca 1257 roku Kraków otrzymał prawa miejskie » Historykon.pl". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
  3. ^ "Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by metropolitan regions". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  4. ^ "Gross domestic product (GDP) at current market prices by NUTS 3 regions". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
  5. ^ "Cracow". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Archived from the original on 3 June 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  6. ^ "Cracow". Lexico. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  7. ^ "Cracow". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019.
  8. ^ Harper, Douglas R. "Krakow [Cracow]". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  9. ^ Małota, Wojciech. "Kraków – Office Power – CRACOW & MAŁOPOLSKA". welcome.com.pl. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012.
  10. ^ Davies, Norman (2023). Boże igrzysko. Historia Polski. Kraków: Znak. ISBN 978-83-240-8836-2. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  11. ^ "Kraków makes top ten in Conde Nast Traveler poll". TheNews.pl. 15 November 2012. Archived from the original on 10 March 2014.
  12. ^ a b c "Our City. History of Kraków (archaeological findings)". krakow.pl. The Municipality Of Kraków, Press Office. 2008. Archived from the original on 19 February 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
    Strzala, Marek. "History of Kraków". Krakow Info. Archived from the original on 9 January 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
  13. ^ "Plaszow Forced Labour Camp". ARC. 2005. Archived from the original on 29 April 2004. Retrieved 14 November 2014.
  14. ^ Kengor, Paul; Clark Doerner, Patricia (October 2007). The Judge: William P. Clark, Ronald Reagan's Top Hand. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-58617-183-4. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  15. ^ a b "Historic Centre of Kraków". whc.unesco.org. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 26 December 2019.
  16. ^ 2nd session of the Committee Archived 23 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine UNESCO World Heritage Committee. Washington, D.C. 5–8 September 1978.
  17. ^ "10 amazing things you probably didn't know about Poland". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  18. ^ "The World According to GaWC 2020". GaWC – Research Network. Globalization and World Cities. Archived from the original on 24 August 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
  19. ^ "Kraków's story: a Unesco City of Literature built out of books". The Guardian. 14 November 2013. Archived from the original on 14 October 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016.
  20. ^ "Krakow to host next World Youth Day". Catholic News Agency (CNA). 28 July 2013. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
  21. ^ "Key facts & figures: European Games Kraków-Malopolska 2023". european-games.org. 19 June 2023. Archived from the original on 13 July 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023.
  22. ^ a b c Nungovitch, Petro Andreas (2019). Here All Is Poland: A Pantheonic History of Wawel, 1787–2010. Lanham: Lexington Books. pp. 55, 287. ISBN 978-1-4985-6913-2.
  23. ^ a b Małecki, Jan M. (2008). A history of Kraków for everyone. Wydawnictwo Literackie. pp. 11, 102, 104. ISBN 978-83-08-04267-0. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  24. ^ "Krakowskie ABC - Magiczny Kraków". www.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 24 January 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2021.
  25. ^ AGH, ACK Cyfronet. "Uchwala - Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej Miasta Krakowa - BIP MK". www.bip.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 8 January 2018.
  26. ^ Tyrmand, Leopold (2014). Diary 1954. Evanston: Northwestern University Press. p. xi. ISBN 978-0-8101-6749-0.
  27. ^ Cracow czy Krakow? Urzędnicy bliscy decyzji Archived 29 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Rafał Romanowski. Gazeta Wyborcza, 9 January 2008
  28. ^ Fischinger, Andrzej; Banach, Jerzy; Smólski, Janusz (1991). Cracow: History, Art, Renovation. The Citizen's Committee for the Restoration of Cracow's Historical Monuments. p. 11. OCLC 749994485.
  29. ^ Kraków, Magiczny (May 2012). "History of Kraków". Official website of the City of Kraków. Archived from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2012.
  30. ^ Živković, Tibor; Crnčević, Dejan; Bulić, Dejan (2013). The World of the Slavs. Belgrade: The Institute of History. p. 310. ISBN 978-86-7743-104-4.
  31. ^ Van Dongen, Krystyna; Van Dongen, Frank. "The royal castle in Kraków". Archived from the original on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  32. ^ Rosik, Stanisław; Urbańczyk, Przemysław. "Poland – Ecclesiastical organization". christianization.hist.cam.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  33. ^ J.J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 85.
  34. ^ Polska Agencja Prasowa. Nauka w Polsce (June 2007), Rocznica lokacji Krakowa (750-year anniversary of the Kraków Location Act). See also: full text of Kraków Location Act in Polish Archived 28 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine, translated from Latin by Bożena Wyrozumska (article by Janusz Kędracki). Archived 8 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 21 December 2012.
  35. ^ Marek Strzala, "Krakow's oldest known City Charter dates back to 1257". Archived from the original on 28 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  36. ^ Kolodziejczyk, Edmund. "Poland. Geography, political history and the position of the church". Catholic Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 16 March 2006. Retrieved 19 May 2011. For the Overview of historic events see: Tartar raids
  37. ^ "Wydarzenia z kalendarza historycznego: 27 czerwca 1315". chronologia.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 22 August 2024.
  38. ^ a b Stefan Świszczowski, Miasto Kazimierz pod Krakowem, Kraków 1981, s.52, ISBN 83-08-00624-8.
  39. ^ Sharon & Peter Pfeiffer, "Krakow. A brief history." "The establishment of a university". Archived from the original on 16 April 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  40. ^ Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground A History of Poland Volume 1: The Origins to 1795. Oxford University Press. p. 65.
  41. ^ Hanseatic towns: Kraków Archived 13 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Polonia Online, Retrieved on 25 September 2007.
  42. ^ Sobecki, Sebastian (2016). Cracow, Europe: A Literary History, 1348–1418, ed. David Wallace. Oxford University Press. pp. 551–65. ISBN 978-0-19-873535-9. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  43. ^ Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5. Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2008.p.118. See vol.1, chapter 5.
  44. ^ Michael J. Mikoś, Polish Renaissance Literature: An Anthology. Ed. Michael J. Mikoś. Columbus, Ohio/Bloomington, Indiana: Slavica Publishers. 1995. ISBN 978-0-89357-257-0 First chapters online Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Retrieved on 25 September 2007
  45. ^ "State of Conservation of World Heritage Properties in Europe: Poland – Cracow's Historic centre" (PDF). whc.unesco.org. UNESCO. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
  46. ^ "Old Synagogue in Kraków's Kazimierz district". krakow-info.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 25 September 2007.
  47. ^ Harold B. Segel, Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470–1543, Cornell University Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8014-2286-8, Google Print, p.252
  48. ^ Davies, Norman (2005). Norman Davies, God's Playground, vol.1, chapter 5. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-925339-5. Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  49. ^ Wieslaw Wydra, "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, Vol. 62 (1987), pp.88–94 (88)
  50. ^ "The Warsaw Voice", 11 April 1999. "Bell Woman of Wawel Hill". Archived from the original on 30 January 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  51. ^ "Painting in Poland – A brief summary". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  52. ^ Emil Kren and Daniel Marx, "Artists' biographies."Hans Süss von Kulmbach Archived 26 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine; J. Paul Getty Museum, "Artists: Hans von Kulmbach" Archived 11 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine; also, Agnieszka Janczyk, Kazimierz Kuczman, Joanna Winiewicz-Wolska, "Wawel Royal Castle, The National Art Collection (homepage)". Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  53. ^ "Kazimierz wczoraj. Introduction". Kazimierz.com. Stowarzyszenie Twórców. Archived from the original on 18 December 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  54. ^ Jagiellonian University Centre for European Studies, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see: "1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw". Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  55. ^ Milewski, Dariusz (8 June 2007). "Szwedzi w Krakowie". Internet Archive (in Polish). Mówią Wieki. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2015.
  56. ^ Frandsen, Karl-Erik (2010). The Last Plague in the Baltic Region 1709-1713. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-87-635-0770-7.
  57. ^ "The Polish struggle for freedom". Archived from the original on 24 September 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  58. ^ "Insurekcja kościuszkowska 1764–1798". Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 26 July 2007.
  59. ^ a b c d e f g Franaszek, Piotr. "Economic effects of Cracow's frontier between 1772 and 1867" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
  60. ^ Cresswell, Peterjon (12 May 2009). Frommer's Kraków Day by Day: 20 Smart Ways to See the City. John Wiley & Sons. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-470-69710-8. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
  61. ^ Chambers's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People, Volume 4. W. and R. Chambers. 1862. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
  62. ^ Marek Strzala, "History of Krakow" "(see: Franz Joseph I granted Kraków the municipal government)". Archived from the original on 9 January 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  63. ^ Moore, Beata (25 August 2006). Cracow: City of Treasures. Pgw. ISBN 978-0-7112-2571-8. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  64. ^ a b Jan Matejko Manor in Krzesławice Archived 2 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
    "Jan Matejko: The Painter and Patriot". Archived from the original on 26 May 2007. Retrieved 18 May 2007.
  65. ^ Maria Prussak, Adam Mickiewicz Institute, April 2006. Profiles. Visual arts, literature, theatre: "Stanisław Wyspiański". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  66. ^ Wood, Nathaniel D. (2010). Becoming Metropolitan: Urban Selfhood and the Making of Modern Cracow. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. p. 272. ISBN 978-0-87580-422-4.
  67. ^ (in Polish) Artur Turyna, "Kraków – najważniejsze daty – Okres IV – od początku XX wieku do dziś". Archived from the original on 14 January 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
  68. ^ (in Polish) Bohdan Urbankowski, Urbankowski, Bohdan (1997). Józef Piłsudski: marzyciel i strateg (Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist). Wydawnictwo ALFA, Warsaw, 1997. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-83-7001-914-3.
  69. ^ (in Polish) Paweł Stachnik, Dziennik Polski, 21 September 2004. "Okrzyk na cześć cesarza". Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2007.
  70. ^ Frucht, Richard C. (2005). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
  71. ^ Magocsi, Paul R.; Pop, Ivan (2002). Encyclopedia of Rusyn history and Culture. University of Toronto Press. p. 370. ISBN 978-0-8020-3566-0. Retrieved 14 August 2009.
  72. ^ "Kraków after 1795". YIVO. Archived from the original on 13 November 2018. Retrieved 13 November 2018.
  73. ^ Eilat Gordin Levitan, "Krakow old scenes, including historical photographs". Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 1 September 2007.
  74. ^ "Kazimierz na przedwojennych zdjęciach. "Ruch na ulicach panował niebywały"". Krowoderska.pl (in Polish). 17 February 2021. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2021.
  75. ^ Sinnreich, Helene J. (2023). The Atrocity of Hunger. Starvation in the Warsaw, Lodz, and Krakow Ghettos During World War II. Cambridge: University Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-009-11767-8.
  76. ^ "Niemiecka okupacja w Krakowie na zdjęciach". Krowoderska.pl (in Polish). 11 February 2021. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  77. ^ Sabor, Agnieszka (26 January 2003). "Cztery miasta w jednym – nowa historia wojennego Krakowa Niechciana "stolica"" [Four cities in one – a new history of wartime Krakow. The unwanted "capital"]. Tygodnik Powszechny No. 4 (2794) (in Polish). Archived from the original on 6 February 2023.
  78. ^ Williamson, David G. (12 April 2012). The Polish Underground 1939–1947. Campaign chronicles. Barnsley, Yorkshire: Pen and Sword (published 2012). ISBN 978-1-84884-281-6. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  79. ^ "Holocaust Encyclopedia – Krakow". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 12 April 2020. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  80. ^ a b c d "Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945 – Vol. II: Ghettos in German-Occupied Eastern Europe". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 9 April 2020. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
  81. ^ Anna M. Cienciala, History 557 Lecture Notes, 2002 (Revised Fall. 2003), "16B. Eastern Europe in World War II: October 1939 – May 1945". Archived from the original on 1 August 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2007.
  82. ^ (in Polish) Edward Burek, (editor). "Sonderaktion Krakau" in Encyklopedia Krakowa. Krakow: PWM, 2000
  83. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 171.
  84. ^ Bieberstein: Zagłada Żydów w Krakowie. Kraków 1985. J. Kast, B. Siegler, P. Zinke: Das Tagebuch der Partisanin Justyna. Jüdischer Widerstand in Krakau. Berlin 1999. Articles from Kraków newspapers (mostly from the local "Gazeta Wyborcza") published in March 2003 on the 60th anniversary of the liquidation of the Kraków ghetto. Featuring historical maps. "The Kraków Ghetto 1940–1943". Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  85. ^ Longerich 2010, p. 376.
  86. ^ Gressor, Megan; Cook, Kerry (2005). All for Love. Murdoch Books. ISBN 978-1-74045-596-1. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  87. ^ Crowe, David (7 May 2007). Oskar Schindler: The Untold Account of His Life, Wartime Activities, and the True Story Behind the List. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00253-5. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  88. ^ Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki, A Concise History of Poland, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-521-85332-X, Google Print, p.66 Archived 4 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  89. ^ Gilbert, M (1989) Second World War, Weidenfeld & Nicolson P646.
  90. ^ "Science & Higher Education in Cracow 2007". Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 23 November 2007.
  91. ^ Jagiellonian University centre for European Studies, see: ""Worker's paradise" of concrete". Archived from the original on 12 March 2009. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  92. ^ a b "Nowa Huta (section of Kraków, Poland)". Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 23 November 2007.
  93. ^ Jerzy Aleksander Karnasiewicz, Nowa Huta. Okruchy życia i meandry historii (Nowa Huta. Crumbs of Life and the Meanders of History), photo anthology; Wydawnictwo Towarzystwo Slowaków w Polsce, Kraków, 2003; ISBN 83-89186-67-5
  94. ^ Woodward, Simon C.; Cooke, Louise (2022). World Heritage. Concepts, Management and Conservation. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-77729-1.
  95. ^ Bujak, Adam; Rożek, Michał (1989). Kraków (in Polish). Sport i Turystyka. p. 22. ISBN 978-83-217-2787-5. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  96. ^ Traczyk, Paulina; Gruszecka-Kosowska, Agnieszka (20 August 2020). "The Condition of Air Pollution in Kraków, Poland, in 2005–2020, with Health Risk Assessment". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 17 (17): 6063. doi:10.3390/ijerph17176063. ISSN 1660-4601. PMC 7503758. PMID 32825405.
  97. ^ a b c d e "Przyroda". zzm.krakow.pl (in Polish). Zarząd Zieleni Miejskiej w Krakowie. 2016. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
  98. ^ Witold Stefan Alexandrowicz and Zofia Alexandrowicz, Acta Carsologica, Slovenian Academy Of Sciences "Pattern of karst landscape of the Cracow Upland (South Poland)". Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
  99. ^ Institute of Environmental Sciences of the Jagiellonian University, "The forms of nature protection within the city limits". Archived from the original on 24 August 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
  100. ^ "Krakow, Poland". weatherbase.com. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  101. ^ a b "Warsaw vs Krakow Climate & Distance Between". www.warsaw.climatemps.com. Archived from the original on 24 May 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  102. ^ "Kraków Weather Averages – Climate and temperatures". www.introducingkrakow.com. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  103. ^ Peel, M. C.; Finlayson, B. L.; McMahon, T. A. (12 October 2007). "Climate map of Europe (from the "Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification")". Archived from the original on 11 May 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  104. ^ Muller, M. J. (6 December 2012). Selected climatic data for a global set of standard stations for vegetation science. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-94-009-8040-2. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2020.
  105. ^ Egoshin, Alex (10 May 2015). "Climates classification by Wincenty Okołowicz". Vivid Maps. Archived from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  106. ^ Twardosz, Robert; Niedźwiedź, Tadeusz; Łupikasza, Ewa (1 May 2011). "The influence of atmospheric circulation on the type of precipitation (Kraków, southern Poland)". Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 104 (1): 233–250. Bibcode:2011ThApC.104..233T. doi:10.1007/s00704-010-0340-5. hdl:20.500.12128/10463. ISSN 1434-4483.
  107. ^ "Poland - Climate". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  108. ^ Kuchcik, Magdalena; Błażejczyk, Krzysztof; Szmyd, Jakub; Milewski, Paweł; Błażejczyk, Anna; Baranowski, Jarosław (2013). Potencjał leczniczy klimatu Polski (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Wydawnictwo SEDNO. p. 64. ISBN 978-83-7963-001-1. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  109. ^ "The Typical Weather Anywhere on Earth – Weather Spark". weatherspark.com. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
  110. ^ "Średnia dobowa temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 3 December 2021. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  111. ^ "Średnia minimalna temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  112. ^ "Średnia maksymalna temperatura powietrza". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  113. ^ "Miesięczna suma opadu". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 9 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  114. ^ "Liczba dni z opadem >= 0,1 mm". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  115. ^ "Średnia grubość pokrywy śnieżnej". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  116. ^ "Liczba dni z pokrywą śnieżna > 0 cm". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  117. ^ "Średnia suma usłonecznienia (h)". Normy klimatyczne 1991-2020 (in Polish). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  118. ^ "Kraków-Balice Absolutna temperatura maksymalna" (in Polish). Meteomodel.pl. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  119. ^ "Kraków-Balice Absolutna temperatura minimalna" (in Polish). Meteomodel.pl. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  120. ^ "Kraków-Balice Średnia wilgotność" (in Polish). Meteomodel.pl. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  121. ^ "Kraków-Balice Usłonecznienie (suma)" (in Polish). Meteomodel.pl. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
  122. ^ "Meteomodel. Dane. Średnie i sumy miesięczne". meteomodel.pl. 6 April 2018. Archived from the original on 27 October 2022. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
  123. ^ a b c Hourihane, Colum (2012). The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture. Vol. 1. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 567–572. ISBN 978-0-19-539537-2.
  124. ^ Ingrid Gustafson, Let's Go: Eastern Europe Archived 4 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Published by Macmillan, page 444. Let's Go Publications, 2008.
  125. ^ Wilson, Thomas M. (2023). Europe. An Encyclopedia of Culture and Society. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 718. ISBN 978-1-4408-5545-0. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  126. ^ "Co się stało z krakowskim ratuszem?". CiekawostkiHistoryczne.pl (in Polish). 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 28 January 2023. Retrieved 28 January 2023.
  127. ^ "Uniwersytet Jagielloński". Wandaluzja. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  128. ^ List of synagogues and Betei Midrash in Kraków between the wars. PDF 49 KB. Retrieved 17 April 2012. Archived 9 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  129. ^ "KAZIMIERZ: THINGS TO DO & SEE IN KRAKOW'S JEWISH QUARTER". Krakow Mon Amour. 12 July 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
  130. ^ Strasz, Piotr. "Secesyjny Kraków". Muzeumsecesji.pl. Archived from the original on 25 April 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  131. ^ Strzala, Marek. "Krakow's Arts Palace". Krakow Info. Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
  132. ^ Beata Vogt, Farid Nassery, Aspekt geometryczny krakowskich budowli modernistycznych powstałych do II Wojny Światowej. Scribd.com document. Archived 8 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  133. ^ "Kraków, Oleandry – Dom im. Józefa Piłsudskiego". Osen.pl. Archived from the original on 5 November 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  134. ^ "Nowa Huta – Sightseeing in Kraków – In Your Pocket city guide – essential travel guides to cities in Poland". Inyourpocket.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  135. ^ "Architecture of Nowa Huta". Nh.pl. Archived from the original on 11 February 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  136. ^ "SOCREALIZM in Poland (1949–1955)". Arts.gla.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  137. ^ "Hotel Cracovia na liście zabytków. Majchrowski chce chronić krakowski modernizm. Warto? [DYSKUTUJ] – Kraków – Naszemiasto.pl". Krakow.naszemiasto.pl. 31 March 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  138. ^ "Kraków z lotu ptaka. Fascynujące zdjęcia z lat 90. XX wieku!". Krowoderska.pl (in Polish). 1 June 2022. Archived from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
  139. ^ "Sztuka Architektury". Sztuka-architektury.pl. January 2000. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  140. ^ Małopolski Regionalny Program Operacyjny, Budowa Małopolskiego Ogrodu Sztuki w Krakowie. Archived 11 September 2014 at the Wayback Machine Teatr im. Juliusza Słowackiego.
  141. ^ a b Wiewióra, Agnieszka (2008). "Kraków okiem 'tischnerowskim'". Informacje ogólne (in Polish and English). Wyższa Szkoła Europejska im. ks. Józefa Tischnera. Archived from the original on 24 November 2012. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  142. ^ Marek Strzala, "The green belt of Kraków Planty". Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  143. ^ "Henryk Jordan's Park". krakow4you.com. 2006. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007 – via Grodzka.net.pl. The park, which was initiated by Jordan, was the first of this type in Poland and in Europe. The initiator himself got so engaged in realising his idea that he largely financed its construction and personally brought the most modern sport facilities from Sweden, Germany and Switzerland.
  144. ^ "History, philosophy and photographs". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  145. ^ (in Polish) Ryszard Burek (editor), Encyklopedia Krakowa, 2000, ISBN 83-01-13325-2.
  146. ^ Dane przestrzenne z Centralnego Rejestru Form Ochrony Przyrody. Archived 6 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine Generalna Dyrekcja Ochrony Środowiska, Poland. Retrieved 4 October 2012.
  147. ^ a b Parkes, Matthew (2004). Natural and Cultural Landscapes The Geological Foundation. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. pp. 53–56, 177. ISBN 978-1-904890-00-3. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  148. ^ Materiały Archeologiczne [Archaeological Materials], Volumes 12–14 (in Polish). Kraków: Muzeum Archeologiczne w Krakowie. 1971. p. 42. OCLC 68755780. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  149. ^ a b Burek, Ryszard (2000). Encyklopedia Krakowa (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Wydawn. Naukowe PWN. p. 1058. ISBN 978-83-01-13325-2. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 27 March 2024.
  150. ^ Nabrdalik, Maciek; Santora, Marc (22 April 2018). "Smothered by Smog, Polish Cities Rank Among Europe's Dirtiest (Published 2018)". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2022.
  151. ^ Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information), "Radni Miasta Krakowa V kadencji (Kraków City Councillors of the 5th term)". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  152. ^ a b Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information), "Dziennik Ustaw Nr 113 poz. 984". Archived from the original on 7 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  153. ^ "Municipality, Mayor, www.krakow.pl". krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 22 June 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  154. ^ "Members of Polish Sejm elected from Kraków constituency – VisWiki". viswiki.com. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  155. ^ "Uchwala- Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej Miasta Krakowa – BIP MK". www.bip.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 5 November 2020.
  156. ^ Laura Brunell, Brunell, Laura (2005). Institutional Capital: Building Post-communist Government Performance. University Press of America. ISBN 978-0-7618-2956-0. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2007. University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland, 2005, ISBN 0-7618-2956-3.
  157. ^ Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej (Bulletin of Public Information). Raport o stanie miasta, 2001. "BEZPIECZEŃSTWO PUBLICZNE". Archived from the original on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2007.
  158. ^ a b "Boroughs of Kraków". krakow-info.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2009.
  159. ^ Rick Steves, "Poland Rediscovered:." Published in Rick Steves' Eastern Europe, 2005 edition. "Krakow, Auschwitz and Warsaw". Archived from the original on 26 January 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
  160. ^ "Poland - Post Report". eDiplomat.com. 24 September 2003. Archived from the original on 20 July 2008. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  161. ^ Jeffrey Zuehlke, Zuehlke, Jeffrey (15 December 2005). Poland in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 72. ISBN 978-0-8225-2676-6. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  162. ^ "Kraków (Poland) | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  163. ^ Kurtz, Michael J. (2006). America and the return of Nazi contraband. Cambridge University Press. p. 25.
  164. ^ O.J's Music, Trumpet Page: including music notations and sound samples in MP3 and Midi version. "Hejnal Mariacki – The Kraków Bugle Call". Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
  165. ^ The oldest mention of Kraków hejnał dates back to 1392 (see: Górska, Katarzyna. "Legenda o Hejnale Mariackim". Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.) "... though there is probably no direct link (wrote Chris Hann) between this bugle call and a historical event in 1241, this does not detract from its meaning for Polish people today" (see: Hann, Chris. "Discovering Social Anthropology in Galicia". Archived from the original on 21 October 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2007.).
  166. ^ MZBD – Miejski Zarzd Baz Danych – Kraków. "StatKraK :: Kraków.:. Liczby...Miasto...Mieszkańcy". Msip2.um.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  167. ^ Original Kraków City Hall bylaw Nr XXI/143/91 (unpublished) introduced on 27 March 1991; current municipal borders established according to City bylaw Nr XVI/192/95 for 19 April 1995. Source: "Gazeta Urzędowa Miasta Krakowa Nr 10, poz. 84". Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 December 2009. Retrieved 14 September 2007.
  168. ^ a b c Kraków Real Estate Market, 2005. Archived 24 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine (in Polish and English)
  169. ^ a b c Economics Archived 17 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Magiczny Kraków
  170. ^ "Capgemini offices in Poland". Archived from the original on 18 August 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  171. ^ "About Sabre Holdings". sabre-holdings.com. Archived from the original on 23 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  172. ^ The Global Future of Outsourcing. Archived 11 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine PBS Wide Angle, WNET.ORG, 13 September 2005.
  173. ^ UNCATD's World Investment Report 2011. Archived 11 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine Polish Information and Foreign Investment Agency, 26 July 2011.
  174. ^ (in Polish) Biuro Informacji Publicznej (Office of Public Information). "Budżet Miasta Krakowa na rok 2011". Archived from the original on 2 October 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2011.
  175. ^ (in Polish) Biuro Informacji Publicznej, Kraków (Office of Public Information, Kraków). "Biuletyn Statystyczny Miasta Krakowa". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  176. ^ Bretan, Juliette (14 October 2020). "Communist-era skyscraper completed in Kraków after 45 years". Notes From Poland. Retrieved 5 September 2024.
  177. ^ "Knowledge and Innovation Community EIT, at". Europa (web portal). 3 June 2010. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 9 November 2010.
  178. ^ KIC InnoEnergy. Designated Knowledge and Innovation Community, 16 December 2009. Retrieved 26 December 2009. Archived 22 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  179. ^ "Metro nie tylko w Warszawie. "To kwestia rozwoju cywilizacyjnego"". polsatnews.pl (in Polish). 28 August 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
  180. ^ "Metro w Krakowie. Miszalski deklaruje: "prace ruszą w 2028 roku"". kr24.pl (in Polish). 28 June 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
  181. ^ Marek Strzala, "Krakow. Varied Means of Transportation". Archived from the original on 19 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  182. ^ Muzeum Inżynierii Miejskiej, Działalność. Archived 22 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  183. ^ (in Polish) Magiczny Kraków, city's official website. "International railway connections from Kraków". Archived from the original on 26 June 2006. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  184. ^ Smith, Mark (12 July 2024). "Krakow Glowny - a brief station guide". Retrieved 12 July 2024.
  185. ^ "101 travel ideas & more than 5.8 million passengers in 2017". Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
  186. ^ "Lotnisko w Pyrzowicach" Archived 12 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine on www.e-krakow.com (in Polish)
  187. ^ "BikeU". bikeu.pl. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
  188. ^ "GUS – Główny Urząd Statystyczny – Stan i struktura ludności oraz ruch naturalny w przekroju terytorialnym. Stan w dniu 31 XII 2010 r" (in Polish). Stat.gov.pl. 10 June 2011. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  189. ^ Kras, Pawel (2012). "Kraków. Introduction". Oxford Bibliographies. Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  190. ^ Keene, Derek (2008). "England and Poland: Medieval Metropolises Compared". Britain and Poland-Lithuania: Contact and Comparison from the Middle Ages to 1795 by Richard Unger and Jakub Basista. BRILL. p. 154. ISBN 978-90-04-16623-3. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  191. ^ Sedlar, Jean W. (1994). "Towns and Townspeople". East Central Europe in the Middle Ages: 1000–1500. Vol. 3. University of Washington Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-295-97291-6. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  192. ^ Labno, Door Jeannie (2011). "Commemorating the Polish Renaissance" (Google books). Shifting Boundaries and Conceptual Identities. Ashgate Publishing. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7546-6825-1. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 2 December 2012.
  193. ^ See "Ludność" "Population" in Encyklopedia Krakowa. Kraków: PWN, 2000 (in Polish)
  194. ^ "Deklaracje narodowościowe w gminach w 2002 roku". old.stat.gov.pl. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2018.
  195. ^ "Już 10 procent krakowian to cudzoziemcy. Wśród nich: Ukraińcy, Białorusini, Włosi i inni". krakow.wyborcza.pl. Archived from the original on 29 August 2019. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  196. ^ "Polska". migracje.gov.pl. Archived from the original on 16 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
  197. ^ "2022 Tablice z ostatecznymi danymi w zakresie przynależności narodowo-etnicznej, języka używanego w domu oraz przynależności do wyznania religijnego". Główny Urząd Statystyczny. Archived from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 16 May 2024.
  198. ^ Józef Szymon Wroński (2007), Kościoły Krakowa (The churches of Kraków). Archidiecezja Krakowska. Retrieved 23 December 2012. (in Polish)
  199. ^ "Meetings :: Jehovah's Witnesses". apps.jw.org. Archived from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2018.
  200. ^ "Katowice Poland District of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". ldschurchtemples.com. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 17 July 2019.
  201. ^ Padzik, Paulina (12 January 2019). "Małopolanie przodują w pobożności w kraju". Gazeta Krakowska. Archived from the original on 17 January 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  202. ^ Adam Dylewski, Where the Tailor Was a Poet... Archived 12 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine website created under the aegis of the Adam Mickiewicz Institute, Warsaw; chief editor: Piotr M. A. Cywinski. Editorial assistance: Anna Marta Szczepan-Wojnarska, and Kaja Wieczorek from Jewish Historical Institute, Warsaw
  203. ^ Devorah Hakohen, Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions... Archived 4 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Syracuse University Press, 2003 – 325 pages. Page 70. ISBN 0-8156-2969-9
  204. ^ "CASIMIR / KAZIMIERZ / CASIMIRUS". jewish-guide.pl. Archived from the original on 12 August 2022. Retrieved 12 August 2022.
  205. ^ "Study in Krakow, city of colours". krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2013.
  206. ^ Times Higher Education Supplement (THES). "Jagiellonian University ranking among world universities" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007. Rank 287 worldwide as the first Polish university listed among the top 500 in 2006.
  207. ^ QS Quacquarelli Symonds. Source: The Times Higher Education Supplement. QS World University Rankings. "Jagiellonian University ranking among world universities". Archived from the original on 25 August 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  208. ^ "History – UJ". www.en.uj.edu.pl. Archived from the original on 23 October 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  209. ^ Jagiellonian University (homepage), "Calendar" Archived 14 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  210. ^ Jagiellonian University, "Treasures of the Jagiellonian Library". Retrieved 11 September 2007. [dead link]
  211. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1996, Wisława Szymborska - Biographical". NobelPrize.org. Archived from the original on 30 June 2019. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  212. ^ AGH University of Science and Technology homepage, "AGH-UST staff and students, introduction". Archived from the original on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  213. ^ Countrywide ranking of Polish universities, Newsweek (Polish edition), 22 March 2004, "Uczelnie w/g typu. Politechniki". Archived from the original on 27 June 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  214. ^ Antoni S. Kleczkowski, AGH University of Science and Technology. "History of AGH-UST". Archived from the original on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 11 September 2007.
  215. ^ "History of the Akademia Muzyczna". Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  216. ^ "Kraków University of Economics homepage". Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  217. ^ "Akademia Pedagogiczna w Krakowie, homepage". Archived from the original on 20 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  218. ^ "Akademia Rolnicza, homepage". Archived from the original on 8 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  219. ^ "Państwowa Wyższa Szkoła Teatralna, homepage. Historical outline". Archived from the original on 10 February 2008. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  220. ^ "Papieska Akademia Teologiczna, homepage in English". Archived from the original on 22 April 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  221. ^ "European Capital of Culture in Poland again". opinia.co.uk. Archived from the original on 1 December 2010. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  222. ^ "Krakow Landmarks | Historical monuments in Krakow". krakow-info.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2009. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  223. ^ a b c d e f Heritage Team (2023). "Museums". krakowheritage.com. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  224. ^ Ministry of Culture (13 September 2013). "Otwarcie Europeum – Ośrodek Kultury Europejskiej nowego oddziału Muzeum Narodowego w Krakowie" [Centre of European Culture, new branch of National Museum opened]. Ministerstwo Kultury i Dziedzictwa Narodowego. Archived from the original on 10 April 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2014.
  225. ^ a b c "Krakow – Specialty Museums". krakow-info.com. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  226. ^ "Muzeum im. Emeryka Hutten-Czapskiego: About the museum". Archived from the original on 19 October 2008.
  227. ^ "Szlak turystyczny po podziemiach Rynku Głównego w Krakowie". podziemiarynku.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
  228. ^ Laskowska, Karolina (2023). "Najciekawsze muzea iluzji w Polsce. Może się w nich zakręcić w głowie". wp.pl (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2 February 2024. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
  229. ^ Drescher, Cynthia; Hinson, Tamara; Donaldson, Tara (28 December 2018). "20 best aviation museums around the world". edition.cnn.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024. Retrieved 17 March 2024.
  230. ^ "Announcements on the Polish Aviation Museum website". muzeumlotnictwa.pl. Archived from the original on 29 June 2013.
  231. ^ Gajewska, Edyta. "Małopolska Cultural Heritage Days". The Warsaw Voice. Archived from the original on 22 December 2014. Retrieved 23 December 2014.
  232. ^ "Stary Teatr w Krakowie, homepage in Polish". Archived from the original on 10 May 2007. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  233. ^ "Krakow Philharmonic". Filharmonia Krakowska. 2010. Archived from the original on 11 October 2009. Retrieved 30 October 2009.
  234. ^ Municipality Of Kraków Press Office, "Calendar of Annual Events, 2007". Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  235. ^ "Krakowski Festiwal Filmowy". krakowfilmfestival.pl. Archived from the original on 30 May 2009. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
  236. ^ Ain-Krupa, Julia (2010). Roman Polanski: a life in exile. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 10, 11. ISBN 978-0-313-37781-5.
  237. ^ "Opera Krakowska". opera.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 9 January 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
  238. ^ "Opera Rara – Kraków – 8 December 2011". Operarara.pl. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  239. ^ Misteria Paschalia festival, trademark of Kraków as the city of early music. Archived 28 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine Homepage.
  240. ^ "MUZYKA W STARYM KRAKOWIE - O FESTIWALU". Capella Cracoviensis Foundation. 12 July 2024. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
  241. ^ "History – Krakow Music Academy". Amuz.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 9 January 2010. Retrieved 11 December 2011.
  242. ^ "Home – Filharmonia Krakowska im. Karola Szymanowskiego". filharmonia.krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 2 December 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  243. ^ a b Graczyński, Jan. "Ponad 14 milionów turystów odwiedziło Kraków". Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 2 June 2020.
  244. ^ a b Łosińska, Ewa (27 November 2009). "Turyści nie oszczędzali na Krakowie". Kraków " Podróże (in Polish). Rzeczpospolita OnLine. Archived from the original on 6 February 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  245. ^ Bartoszewicz, Witold (2010). "Klasyfikacja obiektów noclegowych" (in Polish). Instytut Turystyki. Archived from the original on 20 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
  246. ^ "Krakow Day Trips". Archived from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2007.
  247. ^ Starwood, "Explore Krakow". "Top 10 things to do in Kraków". Archived from the original on 29 November 2006. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  248. ^ Top city-break destinations 2014 Archived 1 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine by Which.co.uk.
  249. ^ "Krakow Sport Information Guide". Cracow Life. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  250. ^ "General info, history and successes". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 15 September 2007.
  251. ^ (in Polish) List of oldest Polish sports clubs featured in a newspaper retrospective. Chmielewski, Zbigniew (2003). "Obok Czarnych znak Pogoni". Polityka. 2414 (33). Archived from the original on 26 October 2003. Retrieved 22 July 2009.
  252. ^ Patrycja (2 September 2012). "Wiślackie Kalendarium: pierwsze mistrzostwo, pierwszy puchar". skwk.pl. Stowarzyszenie Kibiców Wisły Kraków. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 11 November 2012.
  253. ^ "Święta Wojna (The Holy War)". Wisla Kraków – Cracovia Kraków. Footballderbies.com. 2012. Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
  254. ^ "History of "Cracovia Marathon"". Urząd Miasta Krakowa. Archived from the original on 27 June 2007. Retrieved 12 September 2007.
  255. ^ "About Us". TAURON Arena Kraków. Archived from the original on 16 August 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  256. ^ "Kraków Arena | References". colosseoeas.com. ColosseoEAS. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
  257. ^ "Kraków as the European City of Sports 2014". krakow.pl. 9 November 2012. Archived from the original on 23 May 2014.
  258. ^ "Krakow withdraws 2022 Winter Olympics bid". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
  259. ^ "Who we are". Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
  260. ^ "Konsulaty" (in Polish). Retrieved 19 September 2024.
  261. ^ Andrzej Chwalba. Krakow w latach 1939–1945 (Cracow, 1939–1945). Dzieje Krakowa tom 5. Cracow: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 2002. (In Polish.)"Cracow under German Occupation, 1939-1945". Archived from the original on 3 December 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2007.
  262. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Kraków – Miasta Partnerskie" [Kraków – Partnership Cities]. Miejska Platforma Internetowa Magiczny Kraków (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  263. ^ a b c d e f g "Kraków – Miasta Bliźniacze" [Kraków – Twin Cities]. Miejska Platforma Internetowa Magiczny Kraków (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  264. ^ a b c d "Kraków – Honorowe Miasta Bliźniacze" [Kraków – Honorary Twin Cities]. Miejska Platforma Internetowa Magiczny Kraków (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
  265. ^ "Bratislava City – Twin Towns". 2003–2008 Bratislava-City.sk. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
  266. ^ "A Message from the Peace Commission: Information on Cambridge's Sister Cities" Archived 30 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine, 15 February 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2008. Also in: Richard Thompson, "Looking to strengthen family ties with 'sister cities'" Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Globe, 12 October 2008. Retrieved 12 October 2008.
  267. ^ "Ciudades Hermanas (Sister Cities)" (in Spanish). Municipalidad del Cusco. Archived from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2009.
  268. ^ "Edinburgh – Twin and Partner Cities". 2008 The City of Edinburgh Council, City Chambers, High Street, Edinburgh, EH1 1YJ Scotland. Archived from the original on 28 March 2008. Retrieved 21 December 2008.
  269. ^ "Twin and Partner Cities". City of Edinburgh Council. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 16 January 2009.
  270. ^ "Frankfurt -Partner Cities". Stadt Frankfurt am Main. 2008. Archived from the original on 7 November 2007. Retrieved 5 December 2008.
  271. ^ "Sister Cities, Public Relations". Guadalajara municipal government. Archived from the original on 2 March 2012. Retrieved 12 March 2013.
  272. ^ "Leipzig – International Relations". 2009 Leipzig City Council, Office for European and International Affairs. Archived from the original on 29 June 2009. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
  273. ^ "Milano – Città Gemellate". 2008 Municipality of Milan (Comune di Milano). Archived from the original on 10 April 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2008.
  274. ^ "Rochester's Sister Cities". City of Rochester. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
  275. ^ a b "Kraków otwarty na świat". krakow.pl. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2009.
  276. ^ a b "Foreign co-operation". Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. Retrieved 1 November 2007. from the municipality official website
  277. ^ "Intercity and International Cooperation of the City of Zagreb". 2006–2009 City of Zagreb. Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 23 June 2009.

Bibliography

edit
edit